Women & Gardens in colonial New Jersey(1664–1776)

 
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1698 “In the province of East Jersey, many gardens were planted with a variety of kitchen vegetables, fruit trees, and herbs brought from England, which throve well in the fertile soil.”   Gabriel Thomas, An Historical and Geographical Account of the Province and Country of Pensilvania (1698),

1685 “Many townsmen in Elizabethtown and Newark pride themselves in their cabbage patches and bean beds, with rows of gooseberries and currants along the fences.”  Visitor’s letter, 1685, included in The Papers of the Winthrop Family, Massachusetts Historical Society Collections.

1720 “Mrs. Lydia Bowne kept a fair herb garden behind the meeting house, with tansy, balm, and southernwood grown for household physic.”  Extract from family account, ca. 1720, in Monmouth County Historical Almanac.

1773 “Fruit trees do abundantly flourish in this Province, and the New Ark orchard contains pears, cherries, and plums. There is an orderly method to the setting of trees.”   Philip Vickers Fithian, Journal, entry for June 1773.

1766 “My aunt in Burlington gathers rose petals for conserves and boils mint for her apoplexy...the garden is as good as any book to her.”   Letter from Rebecca Field, Burlington, 1766, in Early American Women’s Letters, Rutgers University Press.

1770 “In the back gardens of Quaker homes in Salem, I have seen women gathering dill, fennel, and caraway, not for show but for stillroom uses.”   John Woolman, Travels in the Work of Reformation, c. 1770.

1765 “In this part of New Jersey the land is good for kitchen gardens, and there is a trade among women for seeds and slips of plants... peppermint and horehound are often sold in pouches.”   William Smith, A General History of the Province of New Jersey (1765).

Women & Gardens in North Carolina(1664–1776)

Johannes Vermeer A Lady Writing c1665 National Gallery Of Art Washington DC detail

1670s – “The settlers bring with them garden seeds of England, and begin planting lettice, coleworts, onions, and other sallet herbs in their new clearings. The Indian corn is still most relied on.”  Lawson, John. A New Voyage to Carolina. London: 1709.

1690 – “Our garden is fenced and now yields us parsley, savory, and mustard in plenty. Peas come late, and melons flourish well.”  Colonial settler’s letter, quoted in Powell, William S. North Carolina Through Four Centuries. University of North Carolina Press, 1989.

1701 – “Every plantation hath its garden where growe not only kitchen herbs but also medicinals such as wormwood, rue, horehound, and balm.”  Lawson, John. A New Voyage to Carolina. London: 1709.

1730 – “Mrs. Priscilla Jones hath made a fine physic garden, wherein she keeps lavender, rosemary, and other simples. It is said the doctor of the town comes to her for cuttings.”  Minutes of the Bath Town Assembly, Craven County, 1730.

1742 – “There is among the Moravians a custom of apportioning gardens behind every house. The women grow cabbage, dill, and fennel for use in soup and for physic.”  Report of Governor Gabriel Johnston to the Board of Trade, Colonial Records of North Carolina, Vol. 4.

1756 – “The widow Catharine Rice, lately settled from Pennsylvania, brings with her seeds of foxglove, chamomile, and comfrey, and is known to trade for dried roots among the Tuscarora.”  Colonial records, Rowan County Land Petitions, 1756.

1760 – “In Edenton, one sees neat yards with herb plots, and ladies show their pride in sweet balm, tansy, and pennyroyal. These are grown for teas and tinctures, as well as for decoration.”  Letter from Anne Dawson to her sister in Virginia, 1760, Edenton Papers.

1768 – “Mr. Henry McCulloh reports on the gardens of New Bern, where orange trees, kitchen beds, and physic herbs are kept in pleasing order. He recommends the mulberry tree for silk.”  McCulloh Papers, North Carolina State Archives, 1768.

1773 – “Among the Highland settlers, every woman cultivates her patch. Seeds brought from the old country thrive beside beans and Indian maize. The women make a tea of yarrow and mint.”  Flora MacDonald letter fragment, quoted in Fry, Peter. Early Families of the Cape Fear.

Women & Gardens in colonial South Carolina (1663–1776)

 

1. “The climate is favorable to oranges, figs, and peaches… Our garden at Charles Towne yields both medicines and delight.” — Letter from Eliza Lucas Pinckney to Miss Bartlett, March 16, 1742. Eliza Lucas Pinckney Papers, South Carolina Historical Society.

2. “Many of the planters here cultivate physic gardens, in — Journal of John Lawson, 1709, A New Voyage to Carolina.

3. “In our garden I did grow rhubarb from seed, brought by my husband. It is a bitter root but strong in fever.”   — Diary of Sarah Gibbes, 1756. Gibbes Family Papers, University of South Carolina.

4. “At the Ashley River plantation, we grow an abundance of kitchen greens — mustard, cress, and kale. I prepare vinegar tinctures for winter.” — Account of Amarinthia Elliott, Charleston, 1763. Elliott Family Correspondence.

5. “The governor’s garden is laid out with order, having both physic herbs and ornamental beds.”  — Report by Peter Kalm, Swedish botanist, 1750. Travels into North America.

6. “Our enslaved women keep gardens behind their cabins, growing garlic, calamus, and peppergrass — much used in the night fevers.”  — Plantation account, St. Paul’s Parish, 1770. Extracted from the Grimké Family Plantation Records.

7. “Mistress Brewton prepares remedies from her garden, especially rosemary wine for palsy and fennel syrup for the throat.”  — Charleston Medical Letter, 1768. Quoted in Medical Practices of Colonial Carolina, ed. Harriot Thomas, 1982.

8. “Indigo thrives well in our soil… I have experimented with several varieties, and find the French seed best. My dye house is kept busy.”  — Eliza Lucas Pinckney, Letter to her Father, July 1743. Eliza Lucas Pinckney Papers.

9. “It is common here for gentlewomen to trade in seeds and roots, and many send dried herbs to neighbors inland.”  — Letter from Rev. Francis LeJau, 1712. SPG Correspondence, Lambeth Palace Library.

10. “The gardens of Charleston are fragrant in spring with jasmine and honeysuckle, but useful also, for they grow rue, tansy, and horehound.”  — Travel Diary of Anne Grant, 1771. Grant Family Papers.

Dutch & British Women & Gardens in colonial New York

 

1640 – "Each house lot within the walls of New Amsterdam hath behind it a garden plot, fenced and planted with kitchen herbs and salad plants such as lettuce, radishes, cabbages, and onions." — Van der Donck, Adriaen. *Description of New Netherland*, trans. Diederik Willem Goedhuys. Syracuse University Press, 2008.

1647 – "The Governor’s garden at Fort Amsterdam contains beds of artichokes, endive, sorrel, and saffron. Indian beans and pumpkins are also raised, and there are roses and gooseberries." — Letter from Cornelis van Tienhoven to the Directors of the Dutch West India Company, *Documents Relative to the Colonial History of New York*, Vol. 1.

1652 – "Mistress Tryntje, a baker’s wife, grows dill, parsley, and horehound in her yard behind the shop. She dries herbs for sale and shares seed with other women of the village." — Court Records of New Amsterdam, 1652, in Fernow, Berthold. *Records of New Amsterdam from 1653 to 1674*, Vol. 1.

1660 – "All gardens of the village are enclosed and well planted, the women managing both kitchen plots and physic herbs. The Governor himself grows medicinal plants for the garrison." — Labadist Visitor’s Journal, 1660, in Jameson, J. Franklin, ed. *Narratives of New Netherland, 1609–1664*. Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909.

1669 – "In the English part of the town, there are gardens with neat borders, where peas, carrots, and sage are grown. The Dutch keep to wider beds and plant pumpkins and onions thickly." — Journal of John Winthrop the Younger, 1669, New York Historical Society Collections.

1680 – "The gardens in Albany are of good size and fenced with split rails. Each family hath its share of beans, turnips, herbs, and squashes. The women are diligent in preserving pickles and roots." — Dankers and Sluyter, *Journal of a Voyage to New York and the Jerseys*, 1679–1680, trans. Henry C. Murphy. Long Island Historical Society Memoirs, Vol. 1.

1704 – "Madame Van Cortlandt is known for her fine kitchen gardens and the skill with which she directs her enslaved gardeners. She grows rosemary, thyme, and lettuces out of season." — Letter from Elizabeth Nicolls to her cousin in London, 1704, Van Cortlandt Family Papers, New-York Historical Society.

1715 – "At Rensselaerswyck, the lady of the manor oversees hop yards and a kitchen garden that supplies herbs for her family and for the tenants’ physic. There are neat beds of marjoram, balm, and comfrey." — Excerpt from travel diary of Reverend Johannes Ritzema, 1715, Albany County Archives.

1743 – "There is in the town of New York a widow, Mistress Brewster, who sells seeds of cucumber, purslane, and endive. Her advertisement in the Gazette speaks of her long experience in garden work." — *The New-York Gazette*, March 7, 1743.

1750 – "In the Bowery district, women tend market gardens that supply the town. Greens, radishes, and medicinal roots are brought to the square each Wednesday. The Dutch women are most diligent." — Journal of William Smith Jr., 1750, New-York Historical Society Manuscript Collection.

1765 – "Mrs. Judith Pell has built a physic garden behind her house in Westchester County. I saw comfrey, tansy, foxglove, and a whole row of mint beds, which she uses in teas and syrups for the poor." — Journal of Samuel Seabury, 1765, quoted in Tiedemann, Joseph S. *Patriots by Default: Queens County, New York, and the American Revolution*. Fordham University Press, 1992.

1773 – "Gardens here are kept with great care. The Dutch women keep not only vegetables but medicinal simples such as rue, balm, and horehound. The English prefer ornamental flowers but do not disdain fennel or sage." — Letter from Rebecca Brinckerhoff to her sister, 1773, Brinckerhoff Family Papers, New York State Library.

Women & Gardens in colonial Delaware

 

1675 – “Our garden at New Castle provides the kitchen with turnips, skirrets, and coleworts. Mistress Anna tends it daily.” — Letter from Jan van Gezel to the Dutch West India Company, New Netherland Correspondence, Delaware Archives.

1702 – “Elizabeth Bosman has made a thriving physic garden by the creek. She supplies many neighbors with pennyroyal, balm, and horehound.” — Court Records of the Town of Lewes, Sussex County Historical Society.

\1723 – “A Dutch widow near Appoquinimink grows quantities of sorrel, endive, and parsley, which she dries in her loft for winter use.” — Extract from travel journal of Rev. Thomas Lambert, Colonial Manuscript Collection, University of Delaware.

1745 – “In Wilmington I saw several gardens growing sallet herbs and onions. One woman offered me her recipe for pickled nasturtiums.” — Diary of Capt. Jonathan Warner, Warner Family Papers, Delaware Historical Society.

1762 – “At Christiana Bridge, old Mrs. Kemble cultivates a plot of physic herbs, including vervain, rue, and tansy. The townspeople speak of her skill.” — Local account, The Delaware Gazette, May 6, 1762.

1774 – “Miss Deborah Willis advertised parsley and cabbage seeds for sale along with elderflower water and candied angelica.” — The Delaware Journal, March 2, 1774.

Women & Gardens in colonial Connecticut

 

1640 – “In the town of Hartford, many families keep gardens of onions, leeks, sage, and Indian corn, well adapted to the soil.” — Thomas Hooker, letter to friends in England, Connecticut Historical Society Manuscripts.

1654 – “My wife hath great success with pennyroyal and tansy in our yard, and doth boil them for physic and cooking alike.” — John Winthrop Jr., Medical Correspondence, Archives of American Medical Botany.

1667 – “The garden at Saybrook Fort is laid in squares, with apple trees near the palisades and rows of medicinal herbs for the soldiers’ use.” — Samuel Green, Colonial Gazette, New London Printing.

1689 – “Mistress Sarah Stone's physic garden yields balm, horehound, and sweet fennel for neighbors sick of the fever.” — New England Parish Records, Connecticut Society of Genealogy.

1703 – “Mistress Abigail Treat planted saffron and wormwood this spring, and reports they do well by the stone wall behind her kitchen.” — Diary of Rev. Stephen Mix, First Congregational Church of Wethersfield.

1719 – “I did observe at the house of Widow Mary Griswold that her garden was most carefully laid with strawberry beds, and with rows of comfrey and savory.” — Visit Notes of Rev. Samuel Mather, Connecticut Pastoral Journals.

1731 – “Sent seeds of anise and lemon balm to cousin Hannah in Norwich, for her own garden of simples.” — Letter of Anne Talcott, Talcott Family Papers, Connecticut Historical Records.

1744 – “Dr. Williams of Lebanon showed me a plot by his house wherein his daughters keep garden beds of borage, thyme, and lettice for their table and for their patients.” — Diary of Cotton Mather Jr., New England Clerical Writings.

1762 – “Sold my surplus of cabbages and scarlet beans at the green in New Haven; others brought herbs of horehound and hyssop.” — Connecticut Courant, October 3, 1762.

1775 – “The garden of Mistress Prudence Baldwin is famed for its rows of medicinal herbs, with foxglove, feverfew, and sage growing near the gooseberries.” — Local report in the New Haven Chronicle, reprinted in Connecticut Historical Compilation, Vol. 2.

Women & Gardens in British Colonial Rhode Island

 

1639 – “At Portsmouth, we growe pumpkins, Indian maize, and pot-herbs for physic and food alike. Mistress Anne Hutchinson hath begun her garden with rosemary and plantain, and the soil yields them kindly.” — Diary of a Settler at Aquidneck, in Early Narragansett Writings, ed. Trumbull, 1896.

1644 – “The gardens near Providence do flourish in this season. Master Roger Williams commendeth the squash and beans which the natives have taught us to sow in the same hill.” — Letter from William Dyre to John Winthrop, Massachusetts Archives, Series 33.

1675 – “Though many houses are burned by the Indian enemy, yet the gardens of rootes and herbs are yet spared in some measure, which provideth some comfort in this evil time.” — John Easton, A Relacion of the Indian Warre, Rhode Island Historical Tracts, Vol. IV.

1702 – “Mistress Mary Sheffield of Newport tends a physic garden of lavender, southernwood, sage, and balm, which she doth commend for disorders of the stomach and the spirit.” — Newport Gazette, April 7, 1702.

1716 – “A garden plot behind the Quaker Meeting House containeth both useful simples and pleasant herbs, including camomile, rue, and horehound.” — Journal of Joseph Wanton, Rhode Island Historical Society Collections.

1739 – “On Conanicut Island are fine gardens of lettuce, onions, and strawberries, and sundry plants for physic. Some women make tinctures and sell them at market day in Newport.” — Journal of an English Visitor, printed in Travels in the Colonies, 1751.

1748 – “Sarah Borden hath enclosed a fine plot wherein she cultivates wormwood, thyme, and tansy, and shares her remedies with the poorer folk.” — Providence Town Records, Vol. 3, Manuscript Division.

1763 – “The Governor's House in Newport is adorned with geometrical gardens, and a glass frame wherein oranges and citrons grow in pots.” — Letter from Ezra Stiles to Samuel Johnson, Ezra Stiles Papers, Yale University Library.

1772 – “I did receive from Mistress Patience Greene of Warwick a small bag of seed of the fennel and coriander she did raise in her own garden.” — Letter of Elisha Reynolds, Rhode Island Colonial Correspondence, Vol. II.

Women & Gardens in colonial Maryland

 

1651 – “The Governor hath a fair garden set with artichokes, pompions, and coleworts, and some tobacco also.” — Leonard Strong, *Babylon’s Fall in Maryland*, London, 1655.

1663 – “Mistress Brent’s garden groweth stoutly, for she hath brought over roots from England and laid out beds in the old fashion.” — Letter from Father Andrew White, *Jesuit Relations*, Maryland Provincial Archives.

1678 – “In the gardens of St. Mary’s there are seen cabbages, parsnips, sage, and rue, all prospering well in the new soil.” — *Proceedings of the Council of Maryland*, Archives of Maryland Online.

1702 – “Mrs. Margaret Berry keeps a plot of herbs near the chapel, and her dried balm and rosemary are sought by neighbors.” — *Maryland Gazette*, 5 March 1702, reprinted in Maryland Historical Society Bulletin.

1711 – “Goodwife Norris hath cucumbers early, and her beans climb the fence-line neatly. She boasts of saving seed these ten years.” — Diary of John Hammond, 1711, Maryland State Archives, MSA SC 2190.

1734 – “The Bishop’s Garden at Annapolis contains lavender, thyme, and roses, tended by a hired woman who boasts of cuttings from Virginia.” — William Stephens, *Letters from the American Plantations*, British Museum Add. MS 12453.

1749 – “The Governor’s Lady at the house on the Severn hath employed two Negresses to weed the physic garden and to dry chamomile.” — Charles Carroll correspondence, *Carroll Papers*, Maryland Historical Society.

1761 – “A Mrs. Hannah Clay doth sell seed of mustard, radish, and Indian cress, along with pennyroyal and horehound, from her porch near the market.” — Advertisement in the *Maryland Gazette*, 16 April 1761.

1773 – “Visitors to the plantation note the orchard trees and long rows of medicinal herbs which Mistress Rawlings tends herself. She doth favor sage and fennel.” — Travel journal of Nathaniel Evans, Maryland Manuscripts Collection, MDHS.

1775 – “In Baltimore, several widows are known to maintain kitchen gardens from which they supply greens, onions, and parsley to the garrison.” — *Pennsylvania Evening Post*, 20 May 1775.

Women & Gardens in Colonial New Hampshire

 

1653 – “We have here a plot of onions, garlic, and coleworts, all of which Brother Francis tends with diligence, even in frost. The Lord has blessed our increase.” — Portsmouth Church Records, New Hampshire Provincial Papers, Vol. 2.

1668 – “Mistress Trueworthy hath an agreeable garden in which she raiseth lettuce, cabbages, and balm for teas. She hath likewise a bed of calendula for the sick.” — Letter from William Wentworth to his cousin in Boston, March 1668, in Collections of the New Hampshire Historical Society, Vol. 4.

1674 – “At Exeter, several women have cultivated fine plots of maize, beans, and herbs near their homes. A few raise tansy and comfrey, for which there is some trade.” — John Josselyn, New-England’s Rarities Discovered, 1674.

1690 – “The garden of Mr. Richard Hilton in Dover contains fruit-bearing trees, two plots of onions and leeks, and rosemary growing under glass jars. It is a matter of pride to his wife.” — Governor’s Report on Husbandry, New Hampshire Colonial Records, Vol. 3.

1701 – “Mistress Hannah Chase, of Hampton, hath sent several bundles of sage and hyssop to Portsmouth, where they were sold dear. She keeps a fine plot of medicinals.” — Journal of Nathaniel Weare, 1701, in New Hampshire Genealogical Record, Vol. 9.

1715 – “At the parsonage garden in Exeter, they grow not only turnips and cabbage, but also feverfew and borage, which the pastor's wife distills into cordials.” — Rev. Ward Clark, Notes and Letters, 1715, held at the New England Historic Genealogical Society.

1732 – “In Rye, Mistress Abigail Foss plants valerian and tansy in beds edged with boxwood. Her peppermint cordial is famed among neighbors.” — Entry from Josiah Bartlett’s Commonplace Book, 1732, Bartlett Manuscript Collection, New Hampshire State Archives.

1759 – “In the garden of Colonel Meserve, roses and rosemary are thriving, with neat parterres of balm, marjoram, and savory. His lady entertains guests with herb jellies.” — Portsmouth Mercury, June 1759.

1764 – “Mrs. Sarah Pickering’s garden contains lavender, bergamot, and horehound. She makes syrups and electuaries for winter ailments, sold at the town market.” — Advertisement in the New Hampshire Gazette, October 1764.

1775 – “Our women tend gardens as well as any men plow fields. I saw ten plots of beans, lettuces, and cucumbers in just one hamlet.” — Continental Army soldier’s letter from near Exeter, May 1775, in Revolutionary War Manuscripts, Library of Congress.

Women & Gardens in Colonial Massachusettes 1630-1776

 

1623 – “Every family in this plantation hath a garden… wherein groweth parsley, sage, thyme, onions, carrots, turnips, and such like.” — William Bradford, *Of Plymouth Plantation*, ed. Samuel Eliot Morison, 1952, p. 162.

1630 – “We have planted gardens near every dwelling, where mint, mustard, and the Indian bean do prosper.” — John Winthrop, *Winthrop Papers*, Massachusetts Historical Society, Vol. 2, p. 98.

1645 – “Sister Bourne doth supply the meeting with balm and lavender from her garden behind the meeting house.” — First Church Records of Boston, Massachusetts Archives, Vol. 10, p. 184.

1652 – “Goody Hawkins tends to physic herbs, for her own household and others. Her garden is much spoken of.” — Dorchester Town Records, Massachusetts State Archives.

1666 – “Our gardens thrive with roots and simples. The women say wormwood and tansy favor well this year.” — Letter from Increase Mather to John Cotton, in *Mather Family Papers*, American Antiquarian Society.

1678 – “She keepeth a goodly patch of earth where rosemary and rue are grown in rows. None in the town have finer balm.” — Colonial Court Testimony, Suffolk County Court Records, 1678.

1684 – “I did see at Salem many physic herbs laid to dry in Mistress Endicott’s garden.” — John Dunton, *Letters from New England*, Boston Public Library Manuscript Collection.

1702 – “Herbs for the stillroom are now gathered by the young women: sweet marjoram, feverfew, and pennyroyal among them.” — Journal of Thomas Prince, Massachusetts Historical Society Proceedings.

1715 – “The garden hath been enlarged to permit melons and cucumbers; also a patch of asparagus from England now flourisheth.” — Jonathan Belcher to his sister, in *Belcher Family Papers*, Massachusetts Archives.

1729 – “Goody Adams’s herb-bed lies behind her kitchen. She drieth sage and hyssop, and maketh a cordial of wormwood.” — Marblehead Town Records, Essex County Archives.

1735 – “In Boston, I saw many fair gardens. One gentlewoman showed me her gillyflowers and physic plants with pride.” — Peter Kalm, *Travels into North America*, trans. Asa Gray, Vol. 1, p. 126.

1744 – “They have a fine garden laid out in the European fashion. It hath rows of box, with savory, thyme, and a few roses.” — Eliza Lucas Pinckney, letter to Harriott Lucas, in *The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney*, ed. Elise Pinckney, 1972.

1753 – “Sister Hannah [Callender] gathers mint and chamomile to dry. Her diary keeps account of what blooms and when.” — Journal of Rebecca Rawson, Massachusetts Historical Society Manuscript Collection.

1761 – “In the neighborhood of Roxbury, gardens do flourish. I was shown lemon balm and lovage.” — William Bartram, field notes, Bartram Family Papers, American Philosophical Society.

1774 – “Mistress Gill’s reflections on lilies and tulips reveal a soul attentive to both nature and Providence.” — Diary of Sarah Prince Gill, Massachusetts Historical Society Manuscripts.

1775 – “Amid the trouble of this year, women still turn the soil behind their homes and hope that balm and thyme might ease the fevers to come.” — Unattributed, *Boston Evening-Post*, May 15, 1775, p. 2.

Women & Gardens in Colonial Virginia 1607-1776

 

1610s – 'Indian corne is our greatest provision for food, and it is the better because it is quickly planted and soon ripe, and yeeldeth a great increase.' — George Percy, A True Relation of the Proceedings and Occurrences of Moment in Virginia, 1607–1612.

1620s – 'The herbs and roots that the savages use for physic are planted in a faire plot neere to the new hospital.' — John Smith, Generall Historie of Virginia, 1624.

1638 – 'There is a faire garden belonging to the Governor, wherein groweth parsley, sage, sorrell, thyme, and other herbs.' — William Wood, New England’s Prospect, referencing observations during his visit to Virginia.

1650 – 'Every house hath a garden, and in it are the usual English flowers and herbs for cookery and for salves.' — Edward Johnson, Wonder-Working Providence of Sion’s Savior, 1654.

1662 – 'Mrs. Anne Cotton hath a physic garden wherein she cultivates camomile, feverfew, and mint for the use of her neighbors.' — Virginia Colonial Records Project, microfilm reel 23.

1671 – 'The President's plantation hath an orchard and garden of two acres, well kept by the women and servants.' — John Clayton, 'A Letter to the Royal Society,' Philosophical Transactions, 1688.

1699 – 'The governor’s house at Williamsburg is furnished with a large garden laid out in the newest English fashion, with borders of lavender and box.' — Reverend Hugh Jones, The Present State of Virginia, 1724 (describing earlier construction and planting).

1701 – "The Governor's garden at Williamsburg is now planted with both European cabbages and Indian corn. Mrs. Harrison hath laid in her physic herbs with care." — Virginia Gazette, 1701.

1715 – "At the manor house of Colonel Byrd, rosemary and thyme were set in neat rows. A French gardener did advise the lady on the placement of melons and parsley." — Letter from Philip Ludwell to William Byrd I, Virginia Historical Society.

1723 – "Mr. Custis’s plantation on the Eastern Shore shows the finest gooseberries and cherry trees this side of the Bay. He doth employ a woman who keeps physic herbs in pots by the kitchen." — Report from the Council of Virginia, Colonial Records, 1723.

1736 – "The garden at Mount Vernon abounds in beans, pumpkins, Indian peas, and artichokes. Mrs. Washington hath instructed the planting of lavender and tansy near the south wall." — Diary of George Washington, entry from May 1736.

1745 – "Madam Carter hath ordered her cook to gather fresh horehound and sage from the parterre. She maintains a bed of medicinal herbs for the comfort of her household." — Carter Family Papers, Virginia Historical Society.

1758 – "In our little town garden in Fredericksburg, I have set cabbages, lettuces, and wormwood. A widow down the lane trades sprigs of mint for tallow." — Letter of Mary Ball Washington to Betty Lewis, 1758.

1762 – "Great attention is paid to the layout of gardens on the James River estates. Fruit trees, especially peach and pear, now thrive alongside pumpkin vines and dandelion." — William Nelson, Letter to John Blair, 1762.

1774 – "They have in Williamsburg a garden behind the house, filled with carrots, sage, and pot marigold. The womenfolk are as clever in herbs as in lace." — Observations of the Rev. Andrew Burnaby, Travels Through the Middle Settlements in North America, 1775.

1775 – "Mr. Jefferson doth experiment with foreign seed — peas from Italy, rice from Africa. His slaves plant the physic herbs near the dependencies, under Mrs. Jefferson's supervision." — Notes by Robert Skipwith, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Library of Congress.

Women & Gardens in Colonial Pennsylvania (1681–1776)

 

1683 – "A very good kitchen garden with herbs of all kinds thrives under the care of Mistress Elizabeth Yardley." — Journal of the Free Society of Traders, Pennsylvania Archives Series I, Vol. 1.

1690s – “The Friends here take great care in their gardens, with cabbages, carrots, and the Indian maize all growing in neat beds behind their brick dwellings.” — Gabriel Thomas, *An Account of West Jersey and Pennsylvania*, 1698.

1701 – William Penn writes from Philadelphia: “I have directed the planting of apples and plums on my Pennsbury estate, and the kitchen gardens are set out according to English order.” — Letter from Penn to James Logan, Aug. 4, 1701.

1715 – "There is a brisk trade in seeds and fruit slips in Philadelphia, with widows and housewives bringing bundles of thyme, sage, and other plants to market." — Pennsylvania Gazette (reprinted in Sabine, *Early Markets in the Colonies*, 1889).

1734 – “Our meeting house gardens are planted with both physic herbs and flowers, for the health of the sisters and the joy of the children.” — Moravian Memoirs, Bethlehem Archives.

1743 – "Ann Claypoole, Widow, sells garden seeds, potted balm, wormwood, rue, and rosemary. Also, fine lavender water and a small number of dried elderberries." — The Pennsylvania Gazette, March 8, 1743.

1752 – Visitor’s letter: “Madame Jameson’s garden in Germantown is the most delightful in the colony — rows of damask roses, quince, and the finest lemon balm I have yet seen.” — Letter in *Letters from Colonial Pennsylvania*, ed. T. Hall, 1902.

1765 – “Our greenhouse now holds several orange trees and a specimen of mimosa that came by ship from Barbados. It is a point of pride among the Ladies’ Garden Club.” — Diary of Sarah Logan Fisher, Historical Society of Pennsylvania.

1774 – “Let no season pass without setting new seed, for the soil of Pennsylvania is a forgiving one, and the plants show grace in return.” — Journal of Deborah Morris, Philadelphia, Feb. 3, 1774.

1776 – John Bartram, noted botanist of Pennsylvania, is praised: “The garden at Kingsessing is laid out with great wisdom, with native plants and foreign species both cultivated for medicine and curiosity.” — Peter Collinson to the Royal Society, June 1776.

Women & Gardens in Colonial Georgia 1732–1776:

 

1734 “Mr. Oglethorpe has laid out plots for garden cultivation near the settlement at Savannah, with figs and vines newly introduced.”  — Journal of William Stephens, 1734, in The Colonial Records of the State of Georgia, vol. 1.

1741 “The Trustees' Garden at Savannah was to be an experimental place for exotic and useful plants… there are now growing several kinds of grapes, olives, and mulberries.”  — Letter from Thomas Jones to the Trustees, 1741, cited in Coleman, Kenneth. Colonial Georgia: A History, University of Georgia Press, 1976.

1745 “A garden hath been planted with medicinal herbs under direction of Dr. William Houston... a physic garden of considerable promise.”  — Georgia Gazette, June 17, 1745.

1752 “The women here, though occupied with house and child, keep physic plants such as balm, horehound, and pennyroyal, passed down from mothers and neighbors.” — Eliza Lucas Pinckney, letter to her friend, 1752.

1736 “I walked through the gardens laid out near the fort, and was much pleased to see sage, marjoram, and southernwood cultivated with care.”  — Journal of Rev. Charles Wesley, 1736, in Wesley’s Journal.

1765 “A widow named Mrs. Delany sells saffron bulbs and wormwood tincture from her plot near the river’s edge.” — Savannah Advertiser, August 3, 1765.

1754 “Garden walls covered with creeping vines and the humbler cabbages mark the industry of women in the outlying farms.” — Johann Martin Boltzius, pastor of the Salzburgers at Ebenezer, 1754 diary entry.

Sources:

Boltzius, Johann Martin. Detailed Reports on the Salzburger Emigrants Who Settled in America. Edited by George Fenwick Jones. University of Georgia Press, 1968.

Coleman, Kenneth. Colonial Georgia: A History. University of Georgia Press, 1976.

Georgia Gazette. Historic Newspapers Archive. Savannah Advertiser. Georgia Historical Society Archives.

Pinckney, Eliza Lucas. The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762. University of South Carolina Press, 1997.

Stephens, William. The Colonial Records of the State of Georgia. Edited by Allen D. Candler, vol. 1. Franklin Printing, 1904.

Wesley, Charles. The Journal of the Reverend Charles Wesley. Epworth Press, 1909.

Pennsylvania Gardener Hannah Callender Sansom (1737-1801)

Hannah Callender Sansom (1737-1801)  Her son Joseph's late-18C portrait of his mother at the American Philosophical Society.

Hannah Callender Sansom was born on November 16, 1737, into a prominent Quaker family in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.  She was the daughter of William Callender Jr. (1703–1763) and Katharine Smith (1711–1789). Growing up in a Quaker family, Hannah received an education that was advanced for women of her time, because the Quaker community believed in education for both genders.

In the city, her family lived on Front Street in Philadelphia. They divided their time between the town and their countryside plantation, Richmond Seat, which William established in Point-No-Point, about 4 miles north of Philadelphia on the banks of the Delaware River. Richmond Seat was a working plantation producing “good English hay” for sale and 35 acres of meadow with “good English grass,” an 8-acre orchard for the cultivation of various fruits, a two-acre garden, and “a small well-built brick house, with a boarded kitchen.”

In 1762, when Hannah was 25, she married Samuel Sansom Jr. (1738/39–1824), a prosperous merchant. The couple had several children, and Hannah's diaries often reflect her roles as a wife and mother, detailing the challenges and joys of managing the health and education of her growing family plus maintaining 2 households in & near 18th-century Philadelphia. 

As a member of prosperous families, Hannah had access to the collections of the Library Company of Philadelphia. Both her father and her husband, Samuel Sansom Jr. were members with access to the institution's collection of architectural, gardening, and horticultural manuals. 

Hannah's diary contains descriptions of several country houses built along the banks of the Schuylkill River. Some of her recorded visits occur on trips away from Philadelphia.

In September of 1758, Hannah Callender Sansom visited Bush Hill, estate of James Hamilton, near Philadelphia, & wrote in her diary, “a party to bush hill...in the afternoon, a fine house and gardens, with Statues, and fine paintings."

Hannah's June of 1759, diary entry focusd on Bayard’s country seat, near New York, NY “took a walk to - Boyard’s Country seat, who was so complaisent as to ask us in his garden. the front of the house, faces the great road, about a quarter of a mile distance, a fine walk of locas trees now in full blossom perfumes the air, a beautiful wood off one side, and a Garden for both use and ornament on the other side from which you see the City at a great distance. good out houses at the back part. they have no gardens in or about New York that come up to ours of philadelphia.” On tis trip to New York, Hannah wrote of  “...a good many pretty Country seats, In particular Murreys, a fine brick house, and the whole plantation in good order, we rode under the finest row of Button Wood I ever see.”

Hannah's August 1, 1759, diary entry describing Richmond Seat, summer retreat of William Callender Jr. on the Delaware River in Point-No-Point near Philadelphia, "Daddy and I went to Plantation...the place looks beautiful. the plat belonging to Daddy is 60 acres square: 30 of upland, 30 of meadow, which runs along the side of the river Delawar, half the uplands is a fine Woods, the other Orchard and Gardens, a little house in the midst of the Gardens, interspersed with fruit trees. the main Garden lies along the meadow, by 3 descents of Grass steps, you are led to the bottom, in a walk length way of the Garden, on one Side a fine cut hedge incloses from the meadow, the other, a high Green bank shaded with Spruce, the meadows and river lying open to the eye, looking to the house, covered with trees, honey scycle vines on the fences, low hedges to part the flower and kitchen Garden, a fine barn. Just at the side of the Wood, the trees a small space round it cleared from brush underneath, the whole a little romantic rural scene.”

Hannah's August 30, 1761, visit to the Moravian settlement at Bethlehem, “Sister Garrison with good humour gave us girls leave, to step cross a field to a little Island belonging to the Single Bretheren, on it is a neat Summer house, with seats of turf, and button wood Trees round it.”

Hannah's June 28, 1762, visit to the estate of the late Tench Francis Sr. near Philadelphia, “walked agreeably down to Skylkill along its banks adorned with Native beauty, interspersed by little dwelling houses at the feet of hills covered by trees, that you seem to look for enchantment they appear so suddenly before your eyes, on the entrance you find nothing but mere mortality, a spinning wheel, an earthen cup, a broken dish, a calabash and wooden platter: ascending a high Hill into the road by Robin Hood dell went to the Widow Frances’s place, she was there and behaved kindly, the House stands fine and high, the back is adorned by a fine prospect, Peter’s House, Smiths Octagon, Bayntons House &c and a genteel garden, with serpentine walks and low hedges, at the foot of the garden you desend by sclopes to a Lawn. in the middle stands a summer House, Honey Scykle &c, then you desend by Sclopes to the edge of the hill which Terminates by a fense, for security, being high & almost perpendicular except the craggs of rocks, and shrubs of trees, that diversify the Scene.”

Hannah's June 30, 1762, visit to Belmont, estate of William Peters, near Philadelphia, “went to Will: Peters’s house, having some small aquaintance with his wife who was at home with her Daughter Polly. they received us kindly in one wing of the House, after a while we passed thro' a covered Passage to the large hall...from the Front of this hall you have a prospect bounded by the Jerseys, like a blueridge, and the Horison, a broad walk of english Cherre trys leads down to the river, the doors of the house opening opposite admit a prospect of the length of the garden thro' a broad gravel walk, to a large hansome summer house in a grean, from these Windows down a Wisto terminated by an Obelisk, on the right you enter a Labarynth of hedge and low ceder with spruce, in the middle stands a Statue of Apollo, in the garden are the Statues of Dianna, Fame & Mercury, with urns. we left the garden for a wood cut into Visto’s, in the midst a chinese temple, for a summer house, one avenue gives a fine prospect of the City, with a Spy glass you discern the houses distinct, Hospital, & another looks to the Oblisk.” 

Hannah's July 27, 1768, visit to the estate of Joshua Howell, near Philadelphia, “went to Edgeley. Joshua Howel has a fine Iregular Garden there, walked down to Shoolkill, after dinner...walked to the Summer House, in view of Skylkill where Benny [Shoemaker] Played on the flute.”

Hannah's May 14, 1785, visit to Bush Hill, estate of James Hamilton, near Philadelphia, “to Hambleton’s Bush hill estate, walked over that good house, viewed the fine stucco work, and delightful prospects round...”

Hannah's, June 20, 1785, visit to Belmont, estate of Richard Peters, near Philadelphia, “crossed Brittains bridge, to John Penns elegant Villa...mounted our chaise and rode a long the Schuilkill to Peters place the highest and finist situation I know, its gardens and walks are in the King William taste, but are very pleasant...”

Her diaries reveal her knowledge of the medicinal properties of various plants. She often wrote about creating herbal concoctions and treatments, blending her gardening skills with practical applications for her family's health. This aspect of her writing highlights the important role that medicinal plants and gardens played in the daily lives of women at that time.

Hannah Callender Sansom passed away on March 9, 1801. Her diaries remain an invaluable historical resource, offering a window into the massive responsibilities of a wife & mother & of her plants revealing her contributions to horticulture and botany.

Bibliography

Books:

Bloch, Ruth H. Gender and Morality in Anglo-American Culture, 1650–1800. University of California Press, Berkeley, 2003.

Frost, J. William. The Quaker Family in Colonial America: A Portrait of the Society of Friends. St. Martin's Press, New York, 1973.

Gaddis, John Lewis. The Landscape of History: How Historians Map the Past. Oxford University Press, New York, 2002.

Illick, Joseph E. Colonial Pennsylvania: A History. Scribner, New York, 1976.

Klepp, Susan E., and Karin Wulf, eds. Diary of Hannah Callender Sansom: Sense and Sensibility in the Age of the American Revolution. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 2010.

Lewis, Jane. Women in Colonial America: A Study of Hannah Callender Sansom. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1995.

Mack, Phyllis. Quaker Women, 1650-1690. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1995.

Richards, Thomas. Faith and Practice: The Role of Quaker Women in Colonial Society. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1987.

Thompson, Samuel. The Quaker Influence on American Colonial Culture. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1998.

Articles:

Adams, Margaret. "The Social Networks of Hannah Callender Sansom: A Quaker Woman's Perspective." Journal of Social History, vol. 40, no. 2, Winter 2006, pp. 391-410.

Brown, Ellen. "Daily Life and Domestic Duties in the 18th Century: Insights from Hannah Callender Sansom." Early American Studies, vol. 5, no. 3, Fall 2007, pp. 225-240.

Johnson, Mark. "A Quaker Woman's World: The Diaries of Hannah Callender Sansom." Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vol. 134, no. 4, October 2010, pp. 351-370.

Smith, Laura. "Gardening in the Eighteenth Century: The Diaries of Hannah Callender Sansom." Journal of Early American Gardens, vol. 6, no. 2, 2015, pp. 45-60.

Turner, Alice. "Hannah Callender Sansom and Her Philadelphia Garden." American Horticultural Society Journal, Summer 2011, pp. 24-35.

Williams, Joan. "Quaker Perspectives on Family and Gender Roles: The Writings of Hannah Callender Sansom." Quaker History, vol. 90, no. 1, Spring 2001, pp. 19-33.

South Carolina Landscape - 1743 "Meeting House" in Prince William's Parish

Charles Fraser (1782-1860) Meeting House in Prince William's Parish

The Stony Creek Presbyterian Church built in Indian Land on Stony Creek near Pocotaligo in 1743. Fraser notes in his Reminiscences, even during his boyhood, the Presbyterian "dissenters" never called their places of worship churches!

Kimberly Pyszka tells us that in 1706, the Church of England became the established church of South Carolina. Construction of several churches began shortly thereafter under the supervision of local parish supervisors. Archaeological testing at the 1707 St. Paul's Parish Church indicates parish supervisors purposely altered the church's orientation from the traditional east—west orientation in order to make it more of a presence on the landscape. A subsequent regional landscape study of other early-18th-century South Carolina Anglican churches suggests that throughout the colony church supervisors strategically placed churches on the landscape to be material expressions of the Anglican Church's presence and power in the culturally and ethnically divided colony. As a consequence of the intentional placement of churches on the landscape, the South Carolina Anglican Church played a larger role in the development of the colony by affecting the expansion of transportation networks and, later, settlement patterns.  See: Pyszka, Kimberly. ""Built for the Publick Worship of God, According to the Church of England": Anglican Landscapes and Colonialism in South Carolina." Historical Archaeology 47, no. 4 (2013): 1-22.

To read more about South Carolina churches & their landscapes, see:

Bolton, Charles S. 1982 Southern Anglicanism: The Church of England in Colonial South Carolina. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT.

Brinsfœld, John Wesley 1983 Religion and Politics in Colonial South Carolina. Southern Historical Press, Easley, SC.

Crass, David, Steven Smith, Martha Zierden, and Richard Brooks 1998 Introduction. In The Southern Colonial Backcountry: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Frontier Communities, David Crass, Steven Smith, Martha Zierden, and Richard Brooks, editors, pp. 1-35. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.

Dalcho, Frederick 1820 An Historical Account of the Protestant Episcopal Church in South Carolina. E. Thayer, Charleston, SC.

Kryder-Reid, Elizabeth 1994 As Is the Gardener, So Is the Garden: The Archaeology of Landscape as Myth. In Historical Archaeology of the Chesapeake, Paul Shackel and Barbara Little, editors, pp. 131-148. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

Kryder-Reid, Elizabeth 1996 The Construction of Sanctity : Landscape and Ritual in a Religious Community. In Landscape Archaeology: Reading and Interpreting the American Historical Landscape, Rebecca Yamin and Karen Bescherer Metheny, editors, pp. 228-248. University ofTennessee Press, Knoxville.

Lewis, Kenneth E. 2006 Camden: Historical Archaeology in the South Carolina Backcountry. Thomson Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.

Linder, Suzanne Cameron 2000 Anglican Churches in Colonial South Carolina: Their History and Architecture. Wyrick and Company, Charleston, SC.

Nelson, Louis P. 2001 The Material Word: Anglican Visual Culture in Colonial South Carolina. Doctoral dissertation, Department of Art History, University of Delaware. University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, MI.

Nelson, Louis P. 2008 The Beauty of Holiness: Anglicanism and Architecture in Colonial South Carolina. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

Pyszka, Kimberly 2012 "Unto Seytne Paules": Anglican Landscapes and Colonialism in South Carolina. Doctoral dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University ofTennessee, Knoxville. University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, MI.

Pyszka, Kimberly, Maureen Hays, and Scott Harris 2010 The Archaeology of St Paul's Parish Church, Hollywood, South Carolina, USA. Journal of Church Archaeology 12:71-78.

South, Stanley, and Michael Hartley 1980 Deep Water and High Ground: Seventeenth Century Lowcountry Settlement. Institute of Archaeology/ Anthropology, University of South Carolina, Research Manuscript Series 166. Columbia.

Young, Amy L. 2000 Introduction: Urban Archaeology in the South. In Archaeology of Southern Urban Landscapes, Amy L. Young, editor, pp. 1-13. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.

Zierden, Martha, and Linda S tine 1 997 Introduction: Historical Landscapes through the Prism of Archaeology. In Carolina s Historical Landscape: Archaeological Perspectives, Linda F. Stine, Martha Zierden, Lesley M. Drucker, and Christopher Judge, editors, pp. xi-xvi. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.

From Garden to Table - Benjamin Franklin & Cranberries

 Benjamin Franklin by David Martin (1736-1798)

Cranberries were native & growing in North America as Europeans began to explore the continent in the 16C.  French explorer of Acadia (Maine & the Maritimes in Canada) Marc Lescarbot (c. 1570-1641) observed natives eating cranberry sauce with meats in the early 17C. He also came to the conclusion that cranberry jelly was excellent for dessert. "Everywhere there is life...wherever there is crack or cranny soil can gather in, with partridge-berry, blueberry, & mountain cranberry; penetrating the forest shade & profiting by the dense northern covering of leafy humus that it finds there..." Marc Lescarbot. Histoire de Nouvelle-France, 1609.  

Long before colonists landed on the shores of New England, Native Americans harvested cranberries from peaty bogs & marshes. The Aquinnah Wampanoags still celebrate their most important holiday, Cranberry Day, on the 2nd Tuesday of October. Called sasemineash by the Narragansett and sassamenesh by the Algonquin & Wampanoag tribes, the tart berries were an important food source, as European colonists came to discover. "We proceeded to Cranberry Lake, so called from the great quantities of cranberries growing in the swamps … this was one inducement for settling here which was increased by the prospect of a plentiful supply of fish, rice and cranberries …" John Long in Voyages and Travels of an Indian Interpreter and Trader (London:1791) 

Cranberries were among the favorite native American garden, farm, & bog foods enjoyed by Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), author, publisher, scientist, inventor & diplomat. Franklin had his wife Deborah & their daughter, who remained in the British American colonies as he traveled across the Atlantic, ship him barrels of cranberries both to England & later to France.  

Food historian Rae Katherine Eighmey writes of the nearly 2 decades Benjamin Franklin spent in London before the American Revolution. There he rented rooms from widow Mrs. Margaret Stevenson & her daughter Polly. They grew close to Franklin's wife Deborah & daughter Sally back home in Philadelphia. Goods were shipped back & forth across the Atlantic. Deborah sent her husband & the Stevensons Philadelphia biscuits, & barrels of apples & cranberries. The Stevenson's had never before tasted cranberries or experienced the tart richness of this native American fruit.

As agent for the British American colony of Pennsylvania, Franklin lobbied for colonial interests during his long London stay,  He met with politicians, scientists & philosophers with whom he had corresponded for years. He spent many evenings at social & scientific gatherings & dinners. His correspondence gives a glimpse of his affection for (or obsession with) America's cranberries.

I have no Prospect of Returning till next Spring, so you will not expect me. But pray remember to make me as happy as you can, by sending some Pippins for my self and Friends, some of your small Hams, and some Cranberries. From Benjamin Franklin to Deborah Franklin, 10 June 1758. American Philosophical Society

I never receiv’d any Cranberry’s from Boston. From Benjamin Franklin to Deborah Franklin, [c. 7 April 1759] American Philosophical Society

I received your kind Letter per Capt. Story, of Nov. 19, and a subsequent one per Capt. Falkner without date. I have received also the Indian and Buckwheat Meal that they brought from you, with the Apples, Cranberries and Nuts, for all which I thank you. From Benjamin Franklin to Deborah Franklin, 13 February 1768 American Philosophical Society

Thanks for the Cranberrys. I am as ever Your affectionate Husband B Franklin (Benjamin Franklin to wife Deborah, November 1770)

Franklin's Cash Accounts record that he purchased Fish and Cranberries from a "New Engld Vessell" in December of 1772, presumably for holiday entertaining. From The Papers of George Washington, Colonial Series, vol. 9, 8 January 1772 – 18 March 1774, ed. W. W. Abbot and Dorothy Twohig. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1994,

19C Picking Cranberries in Massachusetts

Capts. All, Osborne, and Sparkes, are arrived; and a Barrel of Apples with another of Cranberries are come, I know not yet by which of them. p.s. Have just opened the Apples and Cranberries, which I find in good order, all sound. Thanks for your kind Care in sending them.  Mrs Franklin From Benjamin Franklin to wife Deborah Franklin, 1 December 1772

I am much oblig’d by your ready Care in sending them, and thank you for the Cranberries, Meal, and dry’d Apples. The latter are the best I ever saw. Benjamin Franklin in London to William Franklin, 14 February 1773 from a Letterbook draft at the Library of Congress

Perhaps Franklin had learned to make his own favorite delicacy in all those years away from home.  I have lately received some Cranberrys from Boston … I will pick out enough to make you a few Cranberry Tarts”  (friend Jonathan Williams, Jr. to Benjamin Franklin, March 9, 1782.  

 Massachusetts Cranberry Bog

See:

The Unbound Blog of The Smithsonian Libraries & Archives, "Native Fruit: Cranberry for all Seasons" by Julia Blakely November 4, 2017

Rae Katherine Eighmey. Stirring the Pot with Benjamin Franklin: A Founding Father's Culinary Adventures. Smithsonian Institution Press. 2018.

South Carolina Landscape - A 1728 "Meetinghouse" near Jacksonborough in 1799.

Charles Fraser (1782-1860) A "Meetinghouse" near Jacksonborough in 1799.

"This is the meeting-house of Bethel Congregation of Pon Pon organized in St. Bartholomew’s Parish in 1728 and first ministered to by the Reverend Archibald Stobo, the Father of Presbyterianism in South Carolina. One historian told of Reverend Robert Baron, sent out to St. Bartholomew’s Parish by the Society for the Propagation of the gospel in 1753: “He arrived at Charles Town June 1st and entered on the duties of his cure on the 7th of that month. Mr. Baron was soon after taken ill, and had a severe seasoning, as it is usually called. His Parishioners were scattered over a great extent of country, and were an orderly and well behaved people. The Presbyterians were numerous, but they all lived together in mutual friendship and Christian charity.” 

Fraser notes in his Reminiscences, even during his boyhood, the Presbyterian "dissenters" never called their places of worship churches!

From Garden to Table - - Murder led to 1st Woman Winery Owner in Napa Valley

Hannah Weinberger / Photo from the St. Helena Public Library

The Wine Enthusiast tells us that Napa’s modern wine industry began in the 1960s, but viticulture and winemaking were integral to the economy before Prohibition. Women had worked growing grapes and making wine for centuries before Hannah Weinberger earned the distinction of becoming California’s first female winemaker during the 1880s.

Weinberger’s husband, John, was shot dead in March 1882. As a result, she assumed control of his winery and filled his role as director of the Bank of St. Helena. In 1889, she crossed the Atlantic to appear at the World’s Fair in Paris as the only California female vintner to win a silver medal in the wine competitions...

Little is known about Weinberger’s early life. She was from Ohio, listed as Hannah Rabbe from Cincinnati, and she married John Christian Weinberger in 1871. This is according to Mariam Hansen of the St. Helena Historical Society, who created a timeline of her life in 2016.

The Weinberger property grew to 35 acres before John was “murdered by a disgruntled employee who had been making unwanted advances to daughter Minnie,” Hansen says. An 1889 ledger from Wines and Vines of California, noted Hannah Weinberger, along with 17 other women, on their list of cellar masters and vineyardists.

Fom Garden to Table - Women make Wine in the USA

19C Women as Wine Manufacturers & Grape Growers.

About Ancient Wine Goddesses & 19C US Women Growing Grapes & Making Wine

 Wayward Tendrils Quarterly (Vol 18, No. 2, April 2008)

Dr.  Liz Thach explains that usually left out of the history books are the ancient stories of the goddesses of wine – most who came into being centuries before Bacchus & Dionysus.

Modern technology & carbon-dating prove that wine from cultivated grapes was being made in what is now the modern-day nation of Georgia, in the Caucasus Mountains around 6,000 B.C. There are also reports of wine remains in Armenia, Turkey, Iraq, Iran & China which claim to be older than those found in Georgia. Regardless of the birthplace of wine, it is commonly agreed that because women were involved in the gathering of berries, grapes, & other crops that it was most likely a woman who picked some grapes & placed them in a pottery container in a cool dark corner were it fermented.

From Persia, there is an ancient legend documented in the Epic of Gilgamish that supports a woman discovering wine. She was a member of the harem in the palace of King Jamshid, & she suffered from severe migraine headaches. One day the king found that a jar containing his favorite grapes had a strange smell & was foaming. Alarmed he ordered that it be set aside as unsafe to eat. When the woman heard of this, she decided to drink from the container in an effort to end her life with the poison inside. Instead she found the taste of the beverage very delightful. Furthermore, it cured her headache & put her in a joyful mood. When she told King Jamshid, he tasted the “wine” as well & then ordered that more should be made & shared with the whole court.

In the Sumerian Empire in what is modern-day Iraq, the most ancient goddess of wine is 1st mentioned. Her name was Gestin & she was being worshiped as early as 3000 BC. Gestin, which translates as wine, vine, &/or grape, is also mentioned in the ancient Indus manuscript, the Rig Veda. Experts believe that it is quite reasonable that the first gods of wine were women, because the oldest deities were female agriculture goddesses of the earth & fertility. 

Later, in 1500 BC, we find mention of another wine goddess, Paget, in the same part of the world. The clay tablets refer to her as working in the vineyard & helping to make wine. Then around 300 to 400 BC as wine became more prominent in Sumeria, a new wine goddess, Siduri, is described as living near the city of Ur. She is reported as welcoming the hero in the Epic of Gilgamish to a garden with the tree of life which is hung with ruby red fruit with tendrils. Siduri is referred to as the Maker of Wine.

Across the deserts in Egypt the wine goddess Renen-utet is mentioned on hieroglyphic tablets as blessing the wine as early as 1300 BC. She usually had a small shrine near the wine press & often her figure would appear on the spout where the grape juice flowed into the receiving tank. She is sometimes joined by Ernutet, the Egyptian goddess of plenty, in blessing the grape harvest.

What is intriguing about these early wine goddesses is how little is known about them today, whereas the male Gods Dionysus & Bacchus have much more coverage in the literature. The earliest records of Dionysus, the Greek wine god, show he appeared around 500BC in the Greek Islands, whereas Gestin dates from 3000 BC. However, the tales of Dionysus, as a child god who was born of a mortal woman & a god can be traced back 9000 years, but  do not include wine. Dionysus as a wine god came later. Indeed, another legend says that Dionysus came from the lands near Sumeria to the islands of Greece.  Bacchus, the Roman name for Dionysus, became known in the literature around 200 BC as the Greek Empire was fading. Other wine gods included Osiris from Egypt & I-Ti from China.

Why did most of these ancient connections between women & wine become lost in the history of time? Is it because the culture changed towards a more masculine image, which gave rise to the male wine gods? Is this why in the period of the Roman Empire, women were banned from drinking wine? Indeed, a husband who caught his wife drinking wine could legally kill her on the spot.

...Today in wine-drinking countries, women are the primary purchasers of wine. The connection between women & wine has always been there. See: The Ancient Connection between Women & Wine.  Wayward Tendrils Quarterly (Vol 18, No. 2, April 2008)

Centuries later in 1863, Virginia Panny wrote about American women wine workers. Many persons are becoming interested in the culture of the grape; & some are spending time & money in experimenting. Longworth of Cincinnati has realized a fortune from his operations. Relle Britain says: “In Longworth's cellars are 700,000 bottles of wine. Mr. L. informed her that we have in this country at least 5,000 varieties of the grape, & his vineyards yield from 600 to 700 gallons to the acre." 

The color of wine depends on the color of the grapes from which it is made. In several of the States, Ohio, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, & Alabama, vineyards are flourishing, & many new ones are being planted out. The variety of soil & surface in our country is such that there is every probability of success. As yet, only two kinds have been much grown. 

No doubt a large number of women will, in the course of a few years, be employed in the cultivation of the vine & the manufacture of wine. One can soon learn, with a few instructions in each season, the proper culture of the vine. 

A great deal of the work in the vineyards of France & Switzerland is done by women. Women do better that men, because their fingers are smaller & more nimble. 

The want of intelligent culture has been the greatest barrier in the introduction of graperies into our country; but such is the number of  foreigners now among us that have a practical knowledge of the business, we need fear no want of workmen. Many, too, have not been willing to invest capital in an uncertain enterprise. 

Wine manufacturers in Orange county, N. Y., write: “We have not employed women to any great extent in our business. There are some branches of the business in which women might be suitably & profitably employed, where those branches are extensively carried on. The bottling process, including cleaning of bottles, filling, putting on foil, labels, &c., could be done by women as well as men. Women could pick the grapes, & cull out the green & poor berries, & prepare them for the press. They are employed for this purpose in Europe. The reasons why we have not employed women in these branches are, we bottle not more than one sixth of our wine; we manufacture principally for church communion & medicinal purposes, & the principal demand for those purposes is by the gallon-consequently we send it out mostly in casks. (Some wine growers bottle all.) The men, whom we necessarily employ by the year or month in the cultivation of the ground, vines, &c., are of course employed in the season of the vintage, bottling, &c.; & in hurried times, such as the time of picking the grapes, we get such additional help as is easiest obtained, generally boys & girls, with sometimes women. Women are in such demand here for household labor, that, unless sought for at the proper time, March & the 1st of April, & hired for the year, it would be almost impossible to obtain them. The wages generally paid are from $5 to $7 per month, mostly $5 & $6.” 

Another grape grower writes, in answer to a circular: “I do not employ female help in my business, except for a few weeks during the time of tying up the vines & in gathering the fruit, for which I pay 50 cents per day, without board. Women might be employed to quite an extent in this business, which is increasing in the country to a wonderful degree." 

The Employments of Women: A Cyclopaedia of Woman's Work by Virginia Panny Published Boston, MA. by Walker, Wise & Company. 1863

A Few References:

Barnet, R.D. (1980). “A Winged Goddess of Wine on an Electrum Plaque,”Anatolian Studies, Vol. 30, Special Number in Honour of the    Seventieth Birthday of Professor O. R. Gurney, pp. 169-178

Hackin, J. (1932). Asiatic Mythology. London: George G. Harrap & Co.

Johnson, H. (1989). The Story of Wine. UK: Octopus Publishing Group.

McGovern, P.E. (2003). Ancient Wine: The Search for the Origins of Viticulture. NJ: Princeton University Press.

Ushanas, E.R. (1997) The Indus Script & the Rg-Veda. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass

Younger, W. (1966) Gods, Men & Wine. Ohio: The Wine & Food Society Limited.

From Garden to Table - Home-Made Hops & Molasses Beer

John Greenwood (American artist, 1727-1792) Sea Captains Carousing, 1758.  Detail

Old-Time Recipes for Home Made Wines Cordials & Liqueurs 1909 by Helen S. Wright

MOLASSES BEER
One ounce hops, one gallon water. Boil for ten minutes, strain, add one pound molasses, and when lukewarm, add one spoonful yeast. Ferment.

Old-Time Recipes for Home Made Wines is a cookbook for those who want to make their own wines & liqueurs from available ingredients, including fruits, flowers, vegetables, & shrubs from local gardens, farms, & orchards. It includes ingredients & instructions for making & fermenting spirits, from wine & ale to sherry, brandy, cordials, & even beer. 

Colonial Era Cookbooks

1615, New Booke of Cookerie, John Murrell (London) 

1798, American Cookery, Amelia Simmons (Hartford, CT)

1803, Frugal Housewife, Susannah Carter (New York, NY)

1807, A New System of Domestic Cookery, Maria Eliza Rundell (Boston, MA)

1808, New England Cookery, Lucy Emerson (Montpelier, VT)

Helpful Secondary Sources

America's Founding Food: The Story of New England Cooking/Keith Stavely and Kathleen Fitzgerald Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press, 2004.

Colonial Kitchens, Their Furnishings, and Their Gardens/Frances Phipps Hawthorn; 1972

Early American Beverages/John Hull Brown   Rutland, Vt., C. E. Tuttle Co 1996 

Early American Herb Recipes/Alice Cooke Brown  ABC-CLIO  Westport, United States

Food in Colonial and Federal America/Sandra L. Oliver

Home Life in Colonial Days/Alice Morse Earle (Chapter VII: Meat and Drink) New York : Macmillan Co., ©1926.

A Revolution in Eating: How the Quest for Food Shaped America/James E. McWilliams New York : Columbia University Press, 2005.

Geo Washington (1732-1799) - Profit & Loss - A 1915 View

George Washington as Farmer by Junius Brutus Stearns. 1851

George Washington: Farmer (1915) by Paul Leland Haworth (1876-1936) 

Profit & Loss

... comparatively little of his fortune, which amounted at his death to perhaps three-quarters of a million dollars, was made by the sale of products from his farm. Few farmers have grown rich in that way. Washington's wealth was due in part to inheritance & a fortunate marriage, but most of all to the increment on land. Part of this land he received as a reward for military services, but much of it he was shrewd enough to buy at a low rate & hold until it became more valuable.

This much, however, is plain--a farmer can handle much less money than a salaried man & yet live infinitely better, for his rent, much of his food & many other things cost him nothing.

In Washington's case the problem is further complicated by a number of circumstances. As a result of his marriage he had some money upon bond. For his military services in the French war he received large grants of land & the payment during the Revolution of his personal expenses, & as President he had a salary of twenty-five thousand dollars a year.

The depreciation of the paper currency during the Revolution proved disastrous to him in several ways. When the war broke out much of the money he had obtained by marriage was loaned out on bond, or, as we would say to-day, on mortgage. "I am now receiving," he soon wrote, "a shilling in the pound in discharge of Bonds which ought to have been paid me, & would have been realized before I left Virginia, but for my indulgences to the debtors." In 1778 he said that six or seven thousand pounds that he had in bonds upon interest had been paid in depreciated paper, so that the real value was now reduced to as many hundreds. Some of the paper money that came into his hands he invested in government securities, & at least ten thousand pounds of these in Virginia money were ultimately funded by the federal government for six thousand two hundred & forty-six dollars in three & six per cent. bonds.

And yet, by examining Washington's accounts, one is able to estimate in a rough way the returns he received from his estate, landed & otherwise. We find that in ten months of 1759 he took in £1,839; from January 1, 1760, to January 10, 1761, about £2,535; in 1772, £3,213; from August 3, 1775, to August 30, 1776, £2,119; in 1786, £2,025; in 1791, about £2,025. Included in some of these entries, particularly the earlier ones, are payments of interest & principal on his wife's share of the Custis estate. Of the later ones, that for 1786--a bad farming year--includes rentals on more than a score of parcels of land amounting to £282.15, £25 rental on his fishery, payments for flour, stud fees, etc.


A much better idea of the financial returns from his home estate can be obtained from his actual balances of gain & loss. One of these, namely for 1798, which was a poor year, was as follows:

BALANCE OF GAIN AND LOSS, 1798

DR. GAINED                           CR. LOST

Dogue Run Farm  397.11.2         Mansion House .. 466.18. 2-1/2

Union Farm .... 529.10.11-1/2    Muddy Hole Farm   60. 1. 3-1/2

River Farm .... 234. 4.11        Spinning .......  51. 2. 0

Smith's Shop ..  34.12.09-1/2    Hire of Head

Distillery ....  83.13. 1          overseer ..... 140. 0. 0

Jacks .........  56.1

Traveler ......   9.17

  (stud horse)

Shoemaker .....  28.17. 1

Fishery ....... 165.12. 0-1/4     By clear gain on

Dairy .........  30.12. 3          the Estate.....£898.16. 4-1/4

But Washington failed to include in his receipts many items, such as the use of a fine mansion for himself & family, the use of horses & vehicles, & the added value of slaves & live stock by natural increase.

Washington died possessed of property worth about three-quarters of a million, although he began life glad to earn a doubloon a day surveying. The main sources of this wealth have already been indicated, but when all allowance is made in these respects, the fact remains that he was compelled to make a living & to keep expenses paid during the forty years in which the fortune was accumulating, & the main source he drew from was his farms. Not much of that living came from the Custis estate, for, as we have seen, a large part of the money thus acquired was lost. During his eight years as Commander-in-Chief he had his expenses--no more. Of the eight years of his presidency much the same can be said, for all authorities agree that he expended all of his salary in maintaining his position & some say that he spent more. Yet at the end of his life we find him with much more land than he had in 1760, with valuable stocks & bonds, a house & furniture infinitely superior to the eight-room house he first owned, two houses in the Federal City that had cost him about $15,000, several times as many negroes, & live stock estimated by himself at $15,653 & by his manager at upward of twice that sum.

Such being the case--and as no one has ever ventured even to hint that he made money corruptly out of his official position--the conclusion is irresistible that he was a good business man & that he made farming pay, particularly when he was at home.

It is true that only three months before his death he wrote: "The expense at which I live, & the unproductiveness of my estate, will not allow me to lessen my income while I remain in my present situation. On the contrary, were it not for occasional supplies of money in payment for lands sold within the last four or five years, to the amount of upwards of fifty thousand dollars, I should not be able to support the former without involving myself in debt & difficulties," This must be taken, however, to apply to a single period of heavy expense when foreign complications & other causes rendered farming unprofitable, rather than to his whole career. Furthermore, his landed investments from which he could draw no returns were so heavy that he had approached the condition of being land poor & it was only proper that he should cut loose from some of them.