Dyes from Native & Garden Plants in Early America

Early Dying in Mesoamerica

Garden & Native Plant Dyes

Plants have been used for natural dyeing since before recorded history. The staining properties of plants were noted by humans & have been used to obtain & retain these colors from plants throughout history. Native plants & their resultant dyes have been used to enhance people's lives through decoration of animal skins, fabrics, crafts, hair, & even their bodies.

The first to use native dye plants in the United States were the Native Americans. Their culture was totally dependent on what the land produced. Native Americans learned about the plants in their environment through general trial & error & through communication with other tribes. 

With the coming of European settlers much in the way of native plant dyes was lost. Some European settlers brought European dye plants for private use or to grow commercially. Indigo, which is native to India, was one of the 1st dye plant early settlers tried to grow, but because of the strict timing involved with harvest & treatment & competition with British production, its popularity faded. High tariffs on dye stuffs placed on American grown indigo by the British made it more profitable for settlers to grow other crops. 

After the Revolutionary War, Thomas Jefferson & Dolly Madison urged the growth of dye stuffs such as madder, indigo, woad, & weld, again all European or Asian plants. Settlers preferred European manufactured dyes because homemade dye colors & fastness are variable. With improvements in chemistry more people were able to use home-grown dye plants but still the majority of the recipes were copies from European books & non-native plants in early America. In the late 18C it was discovered that coal tar compounds could be made into reliable dyes & the 19C synthetic dyes were on their way. 

Before the advent of synthetic dyes in the mid-1800s, only dyes from naturally-occurring substances were available to those who colored textiles, yarn, baskets, or other materials. There are 2 primary types of natural pigments used in dyeing: fat-soluble & water-soluble pigments. Fat-soluble pigments such as chlorophyll or carotenoids occur in all plants to varying degrees. 

As a rule, natural dyes are extracted from plants by pounding, shredding, or cutting them up. Plant parts are then placed in water & heated to a temperature just below the boiling point until the color has transferred into the water. When the color is added to a mordant-saturated material, the dye will then adhere to the fiber of the material. Mordants help set colors permanently into fibers.

Native Americans used a number of naturally-occurring mordants which include: natural alum precipitated from some drying soils, tannic acid from sumac (berries, branches, or leaves), lye made from wood ashes, urine, a sheep manure & water mixture, & smoke.

Natural dye materials that produce durable, strong colors & do not require the addition of other substances to obtain the desired outcome are called substantive or direct dyes. Sumac (Rhus spp.) & walnut (Juglans spp.) are native plant examples of direct dyes. Because these species are high in tannic acid, they do not require additional substances to be added for the dye to attach to fibers & form a durable bond. Dyes that need this type of assistance are called mordant dyes.

10 plants used by many Native Americans for dyes 

Mountain Alder

Red Alder

Bloodroot

Rubber rabbitbrush

Smooth sumac

Canaigre dock

Eastern cottonwood

Black walnut

Skunkbrush sumac

Butternut

Plants in Early American Gardens - Lacinato Kale

Lacinato Kale (Brassica oleracea var. acephala)

An 18th-century Italian heirloom, Lacinato Kale remains popular today due to the superior flavor of its sturdy, savoyed, dark blue-green leaves and high nutritional content. Jefferson recorded the planting of “Cavolo nero (Coleworts)” in his vegetable garden at Monticello on March 12, 1777. Cavolo Nero, or Lacinato Kale, is also known as Tuscan Kale, Dinosaur Kale, and Black Kale.

For more information & the possible availability for purchase

Contact The Tho Jefferson Center for Historic Plants or The Shop at Monticello 

Plants in Early American Gardens - Black- Eyed Susan

Black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia hirta)

Introduced to European gardens by 1714, this favorite native wildflower grows in open meadows and sunny sites throughout North America. A self-seeding biennial or short-lived perennial, Black-eyed Susan bears bright yellow flowers with distinctive black eyes in summer and is attractive to butterflies and birds, but not deer.

For more information & the possible availability for purchase

Contact The Tho Jefferson Center for Historic Plants or The Shop at Monticello 

Plants in Early American Gardens - French Mallow

French Mallow (Malva sylvestris)

When Thomas Jefferson noted “French mallow” on an 1806 list of flowers, he was probably referring to Malva sylvestris, a European and Asian native with handsome, hollyhock-like, purplish-pink flowers. The perennial French Mallow is similar in appearance to its more familiar mallow cousin, the hollyhock. Another common name is “Cheeses Mallow,” a reference to the shape of the seed clusters.

Plant Lists - From Peter Collinson 1694-1768 in London to John Custis 1678-1749 in Virginia

In July of 1736, Peter Collinson in England wrote to John Custis in colonial Virginia,

"I shall be obliged to you for some more o the yoppon, & if the other sorts can be procur'd with Little Trouble please to add some of the Rest for tho' I have Engough already myself, yett I think there is no Greater pleasure then to be Communicative & oblige others. It is Laying an obligation & I seldome fail of Returns for Wee Brothers of the Spade find it very necessary to share amongst us the seeds that come annually from Abroad. It not only preserves a Friendly Society but secures our collections, for if one does not raise a seed perhaps another does & if one Looses a plant another can Supply him. By this Means our Gardens are wonderfully Improved In Variety to what they was Twenty Years agon."

Brothers of the Spade, Correspondence of Peter Collinson, of London, and John Custis, of Williamsburg, Virginia, 1734-1746
By E. G. Swemm, Director Emeritus, William and Mary College
Published by the American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Massachusetts, 1949

John Custis (1678-1749) was a prominent citizen of Williamsburg with an apparently most impressive garden. John Bartram, the Philadelphia naturalist and botanist, commented to Peter Collinson that Custis’ garden was second only to that of John Clayton, the English born Virginia naturalist of Gloucester County. Peter Collinson (1694-1768) was a wealthy English Quaker woolen merchant. He maintained an extensive correspondence with American naturalists, especially John Bartram. His famous garden at Mill Hill contained many American plants, many he obtained from both Bartram and Custis. Custis’ correspondence with Collinson, the subject of Swemm’s Brothers of the Spade, depicts both the joys and trials experienced by early gardeners in their exchange of plants across the Atlantic. List prepared by Peter Hatch of Thomas Jefferson's Monticello.

Plants sent to Virginian John Custis by Peter Collinson from London

Botanical Name, Date, Common Name

Collinson’s Notes:

Abies alba 1738 "silver fir"

Abies sp. 1741 "gilded firs ... which are natives of the
Alps"

Aesculus hippocastanum 1734 "horse chestnuts"

Alcea rosea 1735 "Hollihocks"

Allium neapolitanum lily leek 1737 "white moley"

Amaranthus tricolor Joseph’s coat 1742/3 "Amaranthus Tricolor"

Arbutus unedo 1737 “strawberry tree,” "Arbutus"

Asphodeline lutea 1737 "yellow asphodel,” "yellow asphodill"

Asphodelus albus 1739/40 "white Asphodills"

Brassica oleracea 1736 "cabbage"

Buxus sempervirens cv. 1736 “striped box"

Callistephus chinensis 1736 "China Aster"

Cedrus libani 1735 "Cedar of Lebanon"

Celosia cristata 1738 "tall coxcombs"

Chamaecyparis thyoides 1739 "white cedr"

Citrullus lanatus 1736 'Astrican Water Mellon"

Convallaria majalis 1738 "lilly of the valley"

Cucumis melo 1736 "Affrican Mellon," "Calmuc Mellon
with fruite 2 feet long," "Italian

Melon," "Muscovy Mellon 3 sorts,"
"Sir Charles Wagers Melon,"
“muskmellon"

Cucumis sativis 1736 "Muscovy Cucumber,” "cucumber,"
"long cucumber"

Cupressus sempervirens 1735 "cypress"

Cyclamen sp. 1739/40 "Cyclamens"

Cyclamen coum 1742/3 "spring cyclamen"

Dianthus chinensis 1738 "Double Flowering China or India
pink," "India pinks"

Dictamnus albus gas plant 1742/3 "White Fraxinelloes"

Dictamnus albus ‘ruber’ 1742/3 "Red Fraxinelloes"

Digitalis purpurea 1738 "rose colored foxglove"

Digitalis purpurea ‘alba’ 1737 “flatt?] stalk full of white long hollow
blossoms," "White Fox Glove"

Echinops sphaerocephalus or E.
ritro
1738 "globe [thistle?]"

Eranthis hyemalis 1739/40 "spring Acconite”

Fragaria chiloensis 1736 "Chili strawberry"

Fragaria vesca hautboy strawberry 1736 "Houtboye”

Fritillaria imperialis crown imperial lily 1739 "orange colord"

Fritillaria imperialis lutea 1737 "yellow ones," "lemon colord crown
imperiall”

Fritillaria imperialis cv. 1738 "striped"

Gomphrena globosa globe amaranth 1737 "Amarantheodes,” "Amaranthoides"

Helichrysum orientale 1736 "yellow everlasting flower"

Hesperis matronalis cv. dame's rocket 1735 "Double Rockketts,” "white double
rocketts"

Hibiscus syriacus rose-of-Sharon 1736 "althea”

Ilex aquifolium cvs. 1738 "[gilded?] hollys," "silver holly," "gold
holly"

Ilex aquifolium "Ferox” 1736 "Hedge Hog Holley"

Jasminum sambac 1738 "Arabian jessamins"

Juniperus communis 1735 "juniper berrys"

Laburnum anagyroides golden chain-tree 1735 "laburnum"

Larix decidua 1736 “larch tree”

Laurus nobilis English laurel 1736/7 "Bay Berries,” "bays"

Lavandula stoechas French lavender 1735 "crysanthamum arabian stecus,”
"stecos"

Lilium bulbiferum or
chalcedonicum
1742/3 "fiery lily"

Lilium martagon or chalcedonicum martagon lily? 1739 "red,” "scarlet," "sorts of martigons"

Lilium sp. 1736 "striped Lilly's”

Lonicera sp. 1740 "honey suckles"

Lonicera sp. 1735 "double honysuckles"

Lonicera periclymenum belgica Dutch Woodbine1740 "dutch [honeysuckles]"

Lycospersicon lycopersicon tomato 1742/3 "Apples of Love," "Tamiata”

Malus pumila var. paradisiaca paradise apple 1736 "dwarf apple trees [?] stocks"

Morus nigra 1738 "black mulberry"

Nerine sarniensis 1736 "Gurnsey Lillies"

Nicotiana sp. tobacco 1736 "tob: seed"

Phaseolus sp. 1737 "beans"

Phlomis tuberosa 1736 "Spanish sage trees"

Phoenix dactylifera 1735 "Dates"

Picea abies Norway spruce 1742/3 "spruce Firr"

Picea sp. 1738 "Spruces"

Pinus cembra Swiss stone pine 1738 “stone pines,” "Siberian Cedars"

Pistacia vera 1735 "Pistacioes Nutts, "Pistacios,"
"Pistacia”

Pisum sativum 1737 "peas"

Polianthes tuberosa 1735 "Tuberorse,” "Italian Tuberoses"

Polygonum orientale prince's feather 1736/7 "Oriental Persicary"

Primula x poliantha 1736 "polyanthus"

Prunus dulcis cvs. 1734 almonds: "green shell,” "brown shell,
"cornell,” "soft shell,” "hardshell,"
"thin shelld"

Prunus insititia damson plum 1736/7 "Bullice,” "Damosins"

Prunus padus or Cornus mas European bird cherry or
Cornelian cherry
1738 "cluster cherry"

Prunus persica cvs. 1737 "best peaches, "variety of peaches"

Prunus persica ‘Catherine’ 1740 "Catherine," "Katherine peach"

Prunus persica cv. 1734 "Double Blossome peach"

Prunus persica 'Nutmeg' 1736/7 "Nutmeg peach"

Prunus persica nucipersica 1737 "Nectarines"

Prunus sp. 1735 "chery seeds"

Prunus spinosa blackthorn plum 1736/7 "Sloes"

Pulmonaria officinalis lungwort 1735 "Jerusalem Cowslip"

Quercus suber cork oak 1736-37 "Evergreen Oke whose Bark is the

Cork wee use for Bottles"

Quercus ilex holly oak 1736/7 "Italian Evergreen Okes"

Ranunculus asiaticus Persian ranunculus 1741 "ranunculus"

Rancunculus ficaria 1737 "double yellow pile Wort"

Rhamnus cathartica 1742/3 "Buck thorn"

Ribes sativum 1738 'White Dutch'"White Currants,”
5
“dutch white currant bushes”

Rosa centifolia muscosa 1740 "Moss province"

Rosa x damascene var. 1740 "monthly rose"

Rosa x damascene versicolor 1742/3 "York & Lancaster Rose"

Rosa foetida Austrian briar rose 1736 "yellow rose"

Rosa gallica versicolor Rosa Mundi 1740 “moonday rose"

Rosa gallica 1736 "red rose"

Rosa x hemisphaerica 1735 "yellow province rose," "double yellow
rose," "other yellow rose"

Scilla peruviana 1737 "Blew & White Hyacinth of peru”

Spartium junceum 1736 "Spanish Broome"

Sternbergia lutea winter daffodil 1739-40 "Autumn Narciss with a yellow
Crocus Like flower"

Syringa vulgaris 1737 "lilacks" [other than "pale blew"]

Syringa persica 1738 "persian lilack, "persian lilock"

Tulipa cvs. 1735 "Double Tulips," "tulips," "early
tulips"

Vigna unguiculata 1736 "Italian beans," "black eyed indian
peas"

Vitis vinifera 1736 "grape seeds," "Vines," "White Grape"

UNIDENTIFIED:
“mountain flax” [1742] Swemm says snakeroot but JC
requests this as a medicinal plant he
believes to be very common in
England

“Oriental [?], plant of
paradice”
[1744]

Spanish sage trees [1736] Phlomis tuberosa ?

“syringa[“?] [ 1741] listed among bulbs ?

Laurells [1736] "which I [JC] had very plenty of
before" Magnolia grandiflora, Laurus
nobilis, Prunus (Lauroceraus)
caroliniana?
"The name of the flower white
on one side red on the other"
Possibly Asphodelus albus -- white
w/brown bracts

“Drassenis” 1741] Swemm indexes as "Dracaena”

"small bulbous roots like
hyacinths"
[1736] scilla?.

Plants in Early American Gardens - Sweet Four O'clock

Sweet Four O'clock (Mirabilis longiflora)

In 1812, Philadelphia nurseryman Bernard McMahon sent Thomas Jefferson seed of the "Sweet-scented Marvel of Peru.” Native to the arid regions of the southwest and Mexico, Sweet Four O'Clock is an unusual cousin of the more familiar Common Four O’Clock, or Marvel of Peru, M. jalapa. It bears strongly fragrant, long, tubular, pure white flowers that open at dusk for pollination by night insects including hummingbird moths. This species is as rare in gardens today as it was in 1812.

1764 Plants in 18C Colonial American Gardens - Virginian John Randolph (727-1784) - Millet

A Treatise on Gardening Written by a native of this State (Virginia)
Author was John Randolph (1727-1784)
Written in Williamsburg, Virginia about 1765
Published by T. Nicolson, Richmond, Virginia. 1793
The only known copy of this booklet is found in the Special Collections of the Wyndham Robertson Library at Hollins University in Roanoke, Virginia.

Millet

Millet, from Milk, a thousand, from the multitude of seed it bears. There are 4 sorts, white, yellow, black, and the Sorgo or Guinea Corn. It originally came from the eastern countries, and is much esteemed in making puddings. The seed should be sown in the middle of March, very thin, as the plants require room in a warm dry soil. They should be kept clear of weeds, and in August or latter end of July the seed will ripen, when they are to be beaten out; the seed is good for poultry. The black sort, so called from its black seed, is of no use or value.
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Plants in Early American Gardens - Mandan Red Clay Corn

Mandan Red Clay Corn (Zea mays cv.)

Thomas Jefferson grew “Mandan Corn” in 1807, from seeds sent by Lewis and Clark who lived near the tribe for six months in the winter of 1805. The growing season in North Dakota is short, from June to September, and corn is planted when the gooseberry leafs out. The Mandan style is like a checkerboard, with a hill of two corn plants 4 feet apart, beans between them, and squash edging one family’s plot from the other. Mandan Red Clay Corn plants reach only 4’ high, with multiple “tillers,” or secondary stalks, which form a bush. Also called Lavender Parching Mandan Corn, this beautiful variety bears 6-8” ears; it can be ground into flour and cornmeal, and the kernels can be “parched,” or roasted in a dry skillet.

For more information & the possible availability for purchase

Contact The Tho Jefferson Center for Historic Plants or The Shop at Monticello 

Early American Book - 1806 M'Mahon's Early Cucumbers & Melons in a January Hot Frame

.
Bernard M'Mahon's 1806 American Gardener's Calendar published in Philadelphia

A Hot Frame in January for Early Cucumbers and Melons.

As it is generally the ambition of most gardeners to excel each other in the production of early cucumbers, &c. all necessary preparations should be made this month for that purpose, by preparing dung for hot-beds, in which to raise the plants; for they, being of a tender quality, require the aid of artificial heat under shelter of frames and glasses, until the middle or latter end of May, especially in the middle and eastern states.

But by the aid of hot-beds, defended with frames and glasses, we obtain early cucumbers, in young green fruit, fit to cut or gather in February, March and April, and ripe melons in May and June.

The proper sorts of cucumbers for the early crops arc the early short prickly, and long green prickly ; of which the first sort comes earliest; but the latter is considerably the finest fruit, and greatly preferable for general culture.

And if early melons are also required, there are several varieties of the fruit: the Cantaleupe is one of the best for its handsome growth, good size, and superior flavour; and is in much estimation.

The true Cantalcufie or Armenian warted Melon, is very scarce in the United States; its fruit is large, roundish and deeply ribbed, a little compressed at both ends, the surface full otioarted protuberances, like some species of squash, the flesh reddish, firm, and of a most delicious rich flavour; of which there are several varieties, differing principally in colour, and commonly called black rock, golden rock, &c.

This variety of melon derives the term Cantaleupe, from a place of that name near Rome, where it was first cultivated in Europe...brought thence from Armenia a country of Asia, in which is situated the famous Mount Ararat.

But it may also be proper to raise some of the others for variety; the Romanais a great bearer, comes early, but the fruit much smaller though well flavoured ; the Polignac, Nutmeg and Minorca are also fine melons; but it may also be eligible to raise two, three, or more of the best approved different sorts.

Observe, that in procuring these seeds for immediate sowing, both of cucumbers and melons, it is adviseable to have those of two, three or four years old, if possible, as the plants will generally show fruit sooner, as well as prove more fruitful than those of new seeds, which are upl to run vigorously to vine, often advancing in considerable length before they show a single fruit; but when seeds of this age cannot be procured, new seeds may be improved by carrying them a few weeks previous to sowing in your waistcoat or breeches' pocket.

In order to raise early cucumbers and melons, you must provide a quantity of fresh hot stable-dung, wherewith to make a small hot-bed for a seed-bed, in which to raise the plants to a proper growth for transplanting into larger hot-beds next month to remain to fruit; for this purpose a small bed for a one or two light frame may be sufficient, in which case two cart-load of hot dung will be enough for making a bed of proper dimensions for a one-light box, and so in proportion for a larger.

Agreeably to these intimations, provide the requisite supply of good horse-stable-dung from the dunghills in stable-yards, consisting of that formed of the moist stable litter and dunging of the horses together, choosing that which is moderately fresh, moist, and full of heat always prefering that which is of some lively, warm, steamy quality...in proper quantity as above. And being thus procured, proceed to making the hot-bed, or previously to forming it into a bed, if the dung is rank, it would be proper to prepare it a little to an improved state, more successful for that purpose, by forking the whole up into a heap, mixing it well together; and let it thus remain eight or ten days to ferment equally, and for the rank steam and fierce heat to transpire, or evaporate in some effectual degree; and by which time it will have acquired a proper temperament for making into a hot-bed, by which treatment the heat will be steady and lasting, and not so liable to become violent or burning, as when the dung is not previously prepared.

Choose a place on which to make your hot-bed, in a sheltered dry part of the framing ground, and open to the morning and south sun: and it may be made cither wholly on the surface of the ground, or in a shallow trench, of from six to twelve inches deep, and four or five feet wide, according to the frame; but if made entirely on the surface, which is generally the most eligible method at this early season, it affords the opportunity of lining the sides of the bed with fresh hot dung, quite down to the bottom, to augment the heat when it declines, and also prevents wet from settling about the bottom of the bed, as often happens when made in a trench, which chills the dung, and causes the heat soon to decay.

Then according to the size of the frame, mark out the dimensions of the bed, either on the ground, or with four stakes; making an allowance for it to be about four or five inches wider than the frame each way : this done, begin to make the bed accordingly, observing to shake and mix the dung well, as you lay it on the bed, and beat it down with the back of the fork, as you go on : but I would not advise treading it, for a bed which is trodden hard will not work so kindly, and be more liable to burn than that which is suffered to settle gradually of itself: in this manner proceed till the bed has arrived at the height of four feet, which will not be too much ; making an allowance for its settling six or eight inches, or more, in a week or fortnight's time ; and as soon as finished, let the frame and glass be put on : keep them close till the heat comes up, then raise the glass behind that the steam may pass away.

The next thing to be observed, is about earthing the bed, in which to sow the seed ; and for which occasion, should have a proper supply of rich, light, dry earth, or compost, ready at this season, under some airy dry shed, or hovel, covered at top to keep out rain, that the earth may be properly dry : for if too moist or wet at this time, it would prove greatly detrimental both to the growth of the seed and young plants, as well as be very apt to cake and burn at bottom next to the dung.
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Plants in Early American Gardens - Early Snowball Cauliflower

Early Snowball Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea cv.)

Peter Henderson & Company of New York first introduced Early Snowball Cauliflower to American gardeners in 1888. This member of the cabbage family forms a large smooth white head, known as a “curd,” which should be harvested when still tight and compact. Thomas Jefferson recorded sowing cauliflower seed in his Garden Book numerous times.

1764 Plants in 18C Colonial American Gardens - Virginian John Randolph (727-1784) - Cauliflower

A Treatise on Gardening Written by a native of this State (Virginia)
Author was John Randolph (1727-1784)
Written in Williamsburg, Virginia about 1765
Published by T. Nicolson, Richmond, Virginia. 1793
The only known copy of this booklet is found in the Special Collections of the Wyndham Robertson Library at Hollins University in Roanoke, Virginia.

Cauliflower

Cauliflowers, must be sown critically to a day, or else there is no dependence on the success of them. I cannot, nor do I find any one else capable of assigning a good reason for this, but the experience of this country, as well as England, verifies the proposition. We must therefore receive this fact as we do many others, rest ourselves satisfied, that the thing certainly exists, though the mode of existence is an impenetrable secret to us. Miller says, that for spring Cauliflowers the seed should be sown on the 10th or 12th of August, but in Virginia, the 12th day of September is the proper time, which is much the same as in England, allowing for the difference of climate, the ratio of which ought to be a month sooner in the spring, and the same later in the fall; our summer months being so intensely hot in this place, they should continue until the 20th of October, where they are to remain all the winter protected from the inclemency of the weather, and towards the latter end of February, the plants should be drawn and planted in a good spot of ground for a erop, about three and a half feet asunder, Miller says; but I think six much better, on account of the earth it takes to hill them up when rampant. Gardeners are divided with regard to the manner of preserving them in winter, and after they are planted out in February. Glasses are generally mentioned in the books of gardening as most proper, but later experience seems to contradict this position, because they.make the plant spindle, which is to be feared and guarded against in Cauliflowers, as they have a natural tendency towards luxuriancy, and therefore it is said that boxes, pyramidically formed, answer the purpose much better, for they equally protect plants from frost, afford them full room to germinate, and at the same time do not draw them to such an inordinate length as glasses are too apt to do, even with the best management. In order to have.Cauliflowers in the fall, you should sow your seed on the 12th day of April, and transplant them into beds to restrain their growth, and in July fix them out to stand. As they grow they should be hilled up, otherwise when they head, the winds will be apt to injure them. A rich light soil is what they delight in most. Col. Turner, of King George, who was eminent for Cauliflowers, had a method peculiar to himself for some years of managing them, which succeeded beyond any other. He dug trenches about a foot and a half wide, quite down to the clay. With this he mixed with a spade some long dung, into which he put his plants about live feet asunder, when they were fit to be transplanted; and as they grew, hilled them up with the best mould. This method answered the purpose of transplantation, for the clay repressed the growth of the plant, and the warmth of the dung afforded them just heat enough to live, as they might without it perish for want of nourishment. I have myself found this method succeed best. Virgin mould is preferable to every other sort. The gardeners near London have wholly abandoned the practice of watering their Cauliflower plants in the summer, as a thing very injurious to them, and Mr. Miller coincides in opinion with them. Radishes or Spinach sown amongst the Cauliflowers, so as not to interfere with them, will preserve them from the fly, being a more agreeable food to that destructive animal., When your Cauliflowers begin to flower, the inner leaves should be broken over them, otherwise the sun will soil their snowy colour, and as they spread, the larger leaves,should be served in the same manner. Some pin the outer leaves with a stick, but this is a malpractice, because it often binds the flower, that it cannot grow to that size it otherwise might do. In November, when you have apprehensions as to the approach of intense frosts, take your Cauliflowers up by the roots in a morning, with as much mould as you can, and put them in the ground, in a hole dug about two feet below the surface, well sheltered by straw or thatching, as near one another as you please, and cut them as you have occasion. They may be preserved in this manner the greatest part of the winter, though they acquire an earthy taste from their confined situation. They are not so delicate in the winter or fall as they are in May, notwithstanding in May they are in the midst of other elegancies, and stand without any rival in the fall. That face must be fair indeed that shines amongst a multitude of beauties, which too often eclipse one another. When you meet with a Cauliflower whose curd is hard and white, and free from frothiness about the edges, let it stand for seed, and as the flower branches, remove the leaves fiom off it, and fix three pretty strong stalks at equal angles about it, surrounded with pack-thread, in order to support the branches, which might be otherwise broken by the wind. When the seed is ripe, cut the pods off and dry them, and rub them out as you do Cabbage seed. I have been told that seeds cannot be raised in this country, but I believe the contrary may be proved by a proper culture.

Plants in Early American Gardens - Amanda Patenotte Rose

Amanda Patenotte Rose (Rosa cv.)

Amanda Patenotte Rose is a highly fragrant Damask rose bred in France by Jean-Pierre Vibert before 1846. The main flush of flowers appears in late spring to early summer, but it will continue to bloom sporadically. It has an upright and spreading habit.

Adapting Large Gentry Gardens to the Small Plots of Townsfolk & Baroness Hyde de Neuville c 1749-1849

Spreading Gardening from the Gentry to the Townsfolk

1809 Anne-Marguérite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny, Baroness Hyde de Neuville (French, ca. 1749–1849) The fairly modest Moreau House in New Jersey including statues, flower pots, & a little girl with a rake.

One of Irish immigrant seedsman & author Bernard M’Mahon's (1775-1816) goals, as he was writing his 1806 The American Gardener's Calendar was to spread gardening to urban shopkeepers & artisans. These townsfolk, recently arrived from the farms & plantations of America's 18th-century agrarian economy or from abroad, were finding themselves with disposible income but living in unfamiliar, crowded city streets.  During the Revolution, British naval blockades cutting off imports from abroad forced farmers & planters to make their own textiles & home goods, as they severely reduced the tobacco & grains they had been producing for export.  Markets in northern cities became the source for credit & for formerly imported products. By the last decade of the 18th-century, merchants in towns like Baltimore controlled the merchandise supply lines in & out of the region from Europe, nothern American towns, & the West Indies.   Sons & daughters of farmers & planters moved to town to work in the new economy.  Only a small patch of land was available to them there to plant gardens, but M'Mahon realized that the more folks who gardened, the more seeds, plants, tools, & books he would sell.  He was one of the new garden businessmen from abroad.

1810 Anne-Marguérite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny, Baroness Hyde de Neuville (French, ca. 1749–1849)  Corner Greenwich 

1810 Anne-Marguérite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny, Baroness Hyde de Neuville (French, ca. 1749–1849) Detail Corner Greenwich

1810 Anne-Marguérite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny, Baroness Hyde de Neuville (French, ca. 1749–1849) Detail Corner Greenwich

America, Baroness Hyde de Neuville, (Anne Marguerite Henriette de Marigny Hyde de Neuville), arrived in New Jersey from France, with her husband, in 1807.  They were escaping the results of the French Revolution, as the privileged fled from a vindictive egalitarianism. They would find themselves in a new republic, where those from the farms & plantations were making their way west or flooding into the growing towns along the Atlantic coast. The Baroness would document in watercolors the new egalitarian life in the former British colonies during the Federalist era, especially in its growing towns.

1807 Anne-Marguérite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny, Baroness Hyde de Neuville (French, ca. 1749–1849) View of Utica (New York) from the Hotel

After the French Revolution, she secured the life & safe passage of her husband, who was a royalist, by traveling alone across Europe to intercede with Napoleon.  In order for the couple to escape from France, she posed as her husband’s mother, until they arrived safely in the U.S. They settled on a merino sheep farm in the New Brunswick area.  For a number of years, the couple journeyed to New York City & to various settlements along the Hudson. The Baroness recorded what she saw.  She saw few town gardens.  America's seed dealers & nurserymen were working hard to change that.

Anne-Marguérite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny, Baroness Hyde de Neuville (French, ca. 1749–1849)

Many townsfolk gardened in traditional geometric plots, usually defined by walkways on their smaller lots. Craftsmen such as William Faris (1729-1804), who lacked sufficient space on their small town lots to develop classical falling terraces but wished to copy the designs used by the grander families, adopted traditional geometric garden styles that more closely resembled the miniature formal garden adaptations of the Dutch.  Land in Holland was often only a thin layer of soil unable to support the deep roots of trees, so the Dutch planted low hedges instead. As the Dutch population grew, their gardens became more compact as well. While the sophisticated French thought flowers too common & certainly not as controllable as the gravel they used in their parterres, the Dutch were avid flower growers.  That tradition appealed to America's new city dwellers.

 1817 Anne-Marguérite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny, Baroness Hyde de Neuville (French, ca. 1749–1849) F St DC

After Napoleon was defeated & the King restored to the throne, the de Neuvilles returned to France.  However, the Baron was rewarded for his loyalty & named French Ambassador to the United States, so the couple returned to take up residency in the new capital, Washington.  Baroness Hyde de Neuville continued to produce watercolors depicting life during the Federalist era.

1818 Anne-Marguérite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny, Baroness Hyde de Neuville (French, ca. 1749–1849) Home in Washington to the French ambassador

American devotion to compact urban flower gardens could be particularly profitable for M’Mahon, who sold flower seeds, plants, & bulbs, devoted much of his landmark book to the cultivation of flowers.

1813 Anne-Marguérite-Henriette Rouillé de Marigny, Baroness Hyde de Neuville (French, ca. 1749–1849) The Cottage

Urban Americans were appreciative of their little town gardens. In Philadelphia, Quaker Elizabeth Drinker (1735-1807) wrote in her diary on April 10, 1796, “Our Yard & Garden looks more beautiful, the Trees in full Bloom, the red & white blossoms intermix’d with the green leaves, which are just putting our flowers of several sorts blom in our little Garden--what a favour it is, to have room enough in the City…many worthy persons are pent up in small houses with little or no lotts, which is very trying in hott weather."

Plants in Early American Gardens - Early Curled Siberian Kale

Early Curled Siberian Kale (Brassica napus var. pabularia cv.)

Thomas Jefferson's vegetable garden commonly included various Kales such as German, Russian, Delaware, Malta, and Scotch types. This tender green, also known as Borecole and Headless Cabbage, is superior source of vitamins and iron, surpassing even spinach. Early Curled Siberian Kale is an extremely hardy and vigorous variety with blue-green, ruffled, tender leaves.

Garden to Table - Fish Pepper

Fish Pepper (Capsicum annuum)

Fish Peppers are a form of Cayenne Pepper with flashy green and white variegated leaves and attractive striped pods that ripen to solid red. Named for its use as a seafood seasoning in Mid-Atlantic urban regions, oral traditions trace the Fish Pepper to 19th century African-American gardening and culinary usage. This very hot pepper can be used fresh or dried, while the compact plant is an attractive addition to the garden or containers.

Plants & Catalogs - Nurseryman Joseph Breck 1794-1873 & his spectacular 1833 circular flower bed

Joseph Breck (1794-1873) of Boston, Massachusetts

Breck, born in Medfield, MA, established his business, Joseph Breck & Company, in 1818 in Boston. From 1822 to 1846, Breck was the editor of the New England Farmer, one of the earliest agricultural magazines established in the U.S., and the first of its kind in New England. In 1833,

In 1840, Breck published his company’s first catalog New England Agricultural Warehouse and Seed Store Catalogue, which was a small book, 84 pages in length.  Breck attempted to use horticulture as an uplifting, educational tool. He included French plant names, listed standard works on horticulture, used illustrations to improve his readers’ tastes. The 1840 catalog featured 72 black-and-white engravings. Breck’s catalog may have been his rural customers only exposure to graphic arts and horticultural literature.

He was one of the founding members of the American Seed Trade Association and a president of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society from 1859-1862. Breck experimented with different forms of catalogs, for one of his schemes he packaged a collection of seeds targeted at specific markets such as the West Indies.  Long essays on gardening were included with the products.  In 1856, he published The Flower Garden, a book about the cultivation of ornamental plants such as perennials, annuals, shrubs and evergreen trees.

Breck Nurseries in 1850, located in Brighton, MA

In 1833, he wrote The Young Florist to educate upcoming generations about natural history and flowers.  In this book, designed "to attract young persons to that delightful employment, the cultivation of a flower garden," he presents a rather complicated plan for a bed of garden flowers. The text is presented as a conversation between an older gardener and his young pupils.

H. You see here a square, within which are three circular beds, or concentric circles, having two rows of figures in each. Now these circles are to be filled with annual flowers, and each number represents a different sort, and you see they are numbered as high as 100, so that I have designed it for one hundred different kinds.

I shall shortly show you a list of these, with their numbers opposite to their respective manes.

I have contrived it so that the tallest plants shall be in the centre and cover an arbor, as you see I have marked. You see a walk from the outside of the square to the arbor, communicating with one large and two smaller circular ones.

For the inner circle of all, such plants as climb to the height of ten feet or more, as the Morning Glory, Flowering Beans, &c., for which it will be necessary to put down birch poles with the branches of the tops left on to form the arbor.

For the second row you will find I have selected Sweet Peas, Cypress Vine, Nasturtium, &c. which are also climbers, and will require brush for their support, neatly trimmed, about four and a half feet high.

For the third circular row, the tallest plants which do not climb; and each successive circle of plants diminishes in height to the outer one, which is composed of dwarfs--and you will find by inspecting the key that no two kinds or colors of flowers come together, so that when it is all in bloom, it will have the appearance of a cone of flowers of every shape, color and shade tastefully intermingled, as represented in the following drawing; in which, however, I have not introduced any arbor, which can be done or not, at pleasure.

M. This will be beautiful, surely, and must have taken some time and patience to arrange it; but I think it will be a perplexing piece of work to transfer it to the ground, and have all the plants sowed in the place you have allotted them.

H. Nothing will be easier, as you will see when I come to lay it out and sow them.

M. What is to be put in the outer part of the figure, and what is the meaning of the letters?

H. That is the place for the perennial plants that we have in our little garden, and for such as we may procure from other gardens and the fields, and may be arranged in any fanciful manner we please. The letters represent fanciful groups of flowers to be in bloom at the same time, for different months of the year, to be composed of annuals and perennials. Ju. for July, Au. for August, A. for April, M. for May, &c., and here you may have opportunity to exercise your taste.

M. That will please me; and by the time you get the ground in readiness, I will exhibit a plan for every month in the season. I wish you would give me a copy of that part which contains the annuals, as I wish to send it to cousin Eliza; she had but a small piece of ground and her father has no place of his own, and or course does not want to be at the expense of cultivating many perennials, as he moves so often from one place to another.

H. I shall be happy to furnish you with a copy for her, and will also send her a portion of our seeds, with directions how to cultivate them. On the following pages you will see a list of the plants arranged in order; you will find some numbers and plants inserted twice; this is done to fill out the circle; and some of them are very showy. Be particular not to make any mistake while you write it off for her.

A KEY TO THE PLAN FOR A GARDEN.

First Circle.
No.
1 Scarlet Flowering Bean, scarlet.
2 Blue Morning Glory, dark and light blue.
3 White Flowering Bean, white.
4 Rose Morning Glory, purplish red.
5 Purple Flowering Bean, purple.
6 Superb Striped Morning Glory, white striped.
7 Scarlet Morning Glory, or Ipomea, scarlet.
8 Two Colored Lemon Gourd (ornamental fruit), yellow.
9 Starry Ipomea, delicate blue.

Second Circle
No.
10 Nasturtium, deep orange.
11 Scarlet Sweet Pea, red.
12 Balloon Vine, white, curious seed pods.
13 Purple Sweet Pea, purple.
14 Mexican Ximenisia, yellow.
15 Cypress Vine, brilliant crimson.
16 White Sweet Pea, white.
10 Nasturtium, deep orange.
17 Tangiers Crimson Sweet Pea, dark crimson.
12 Balloon Vine, white.
15 Cypress Vine (scald this seed), crimson.

Third Circle
No.
18 Red Four o’Clock, deep red.
19 Violet Zinnia, violet.
20 Yellow Immortal Flower, brilliant yellow.
21 White Chrysanthemum, white.
22 Prince’s Feather, very dark red.
23 Tall Blue Larkspur, lively blue.
24 Yellow Four o’Clock, yellow.
25 Variegated Euphorbia, elegantly variegated white and green.
26 Red Lavatera, light red strip’d with deep.
27 Blue Commelina, celestial blue.
28 Yellow Chrysanthemum, yellow.
29 White Lavatera, pure white.
30 Love Lies Bleeding, blood red.
19 Violet Zinnia, violet.
20 Yellow Immortal Flower, brilliant yellow.
21 Variegated Euphorbia, white and green.
26 Red Lavatera, light red.

Fourth Circle
No.
31 Grand Flowering Argemone, elegant white flower and yellow centre.
32 Yellow Zinnia, tawny yellow.
33 American Centaurea, pale purple.
34 Tricolored Amaranthus, each leaf red, yellow and brown.
35 Long Flowered Four o’Clock, white with purple centre.
36 Grand Flowering Evening Primrose, yellow.
37 Purple Amaranthus (soak the seed in milk 24 hours), purple.
38 Red Zinnia, red.
39 White Amaranthus (soak the seed in milk 24 hours), white.
40 Golden Coreopsis, fine yellow with brown centre.
41 Red Opium Poppy, purplish red.
42 Crimson cockscomb, deep crimson.
35 Long Flowering Four o’Clock, white with purple.
43 African Marigold, orange.
37 Purple Amaranthus, purple.
34 Tricolored Amaranthus, yellow, red and brown.
39 White Amaranthus, white.
44 French Marigold, brown velvet orange.
41 Red Opium Poppy, purplish red.
42 Crimson Cockscomb, deep crimson.
46 Night Flowering Primrose, yellow.
27 Commelina, bright blue.

Fifth Circle
47 Tricolored Chrysanthemum, white, yellow and brown.
48 D’ble white and variegated Balsams, white and variegated.
49 Fennel Flower or Love in a Mist, blue.
50 Red Quilled Aster, red.
51 Long Flowered Evening Primrose, yellow.
52 White Expanded Aster, white.
53. Blue Lupin, blue.
54 Double Carnation Poppy, of sorts, red, pin, &c.
55 Yellow Hawkweed or Crepis Barbata, yellow and brown.
56 White Quilled Aster, white.
57. Blue Bottle, blue.
58 Fire Colored and Crimson Balsams, red.
59 Scorzonera, deep yellow and brown.
60 Double White Fringed Poppy, pure white.
61 Purple and Lilac expanded Aster, purple and lilac.
62 Scarlet Malope, red, with purplish stripe.
63 Pot Marigold, orange.
64 White Catchlfy, white.
65 Lemon Balm, blue and fine scent.
66 African Rose, every shade of red.
67 Beautiful Ketmia, straw and purple.
68 Variegated Asters, white, with blue and red stripes.
69 Azure blue Gilia, fine blue.
70 Red Quilled Aster, red.
45 African Hibiscus, straw and deep purple.
71 Sweet Basil, or Lavender, white with delightful scent.
72 Mexican Ageratum, blue
73 Double Purple Balsams, purple.
66 African Rose, every shade of red.
55 Yellow Hawkweed, yellow and brown.
60 White Fringed Poppy, pure white.
69 Azure Blue Gilia, blue.
74 Convolvulus Minor, fine blue and yellow.
75 Scarlet Cacalia, scarlet.
76 Snails, yellow, with curious pod.
77 Sweet Alyssum, white sweet scented.
78 Purple Candytuft, purple.
79 Daisy Leaved Catchfly, fine pink.
80 Caterpillars, yellow, with curious pod.
81 White Evening Primrose, pure white.
82 Double Dwarf Larkspur, purple, pink and white.
83 Lobel’s Catchfly, red.
84 Mignonette, yellowish, very fragrant.
85 White Candytuft, white.
86 Purple Immortal Flower, fine light purple.
87 Beautiful Clarkea, red.
88 Horns, yellow, curious pod.
89 Venus’ Looking Glass, blue.
90 Red Hawkweed, pale red.
91 Hedgehogs, yellow, curious pod.
74 Convolvulus Minor, fine blue and yellow centre.
75 Scarlet Cacalia, fine scarlet.
84 Mignonette, yellowish, very fragrant.
77 Sweet Alyssum, white and fragrant.
92 Wing Leaved Schizanthus, light and dark, purple and yellow.
93 Sensitive Plant, pink, very curious plant.
94 Coronilla, beautiful leaf, yellow.
95 Ice Plant, curious plant, white.
96 Nolana, light and dark blue.
83 Lobel’s Catchfly, red.
84 Mignonete, yellowish, fragrant.
81 White Evening Primrose, white.
97 Forget-me-not, blue.
79 Daisy Leaved Catchfly, fine pink.
98 Thunbergia, fine new plant - yellow and brown.
99 Heart’s Ease, purple, yellow and white.
87 Beautiful Clarkea, red.
100 Purple Jacobea, purple.

Plants in Early American Gardens - Texas Bird Pepper

Texas Bird Pepper (Capsicum annuum glabriusculum)

Capt. Samuel Brown sent Jefferson seeds of this dwarf pepper from San Antonio, Texas in 1812-13; stating that the peppers were as “essential to my health as salt itself.” Jefferson grew them at Monticello and also forwarded seeds to Philadelphia nurseryman Bernard McMahon who popularized it as an ornamental pot plant. Texas Bird Pepper is a lush, compact plant covered in early fall with tiny half-inch, reddish-orange, extremely hot peppers.

William Russell Birch (1755-1834) views American Gentlemen's Country Seats in 1808

English landscape artist & designer William Russell Birch (1755-1834) arrived in Philadelphia in 1794, with a letter of introduction from Pennsylvania expatriate artist Benjamin West. After publishing his successful book of engravings, City of Philadelphia in the State of Pennsylvania, North America, as it appeared in the Year 1800, he traveled up & down the Atlantic coast sketching for his 2nd American book of engravings, The Country Seats of the United States published in 1808.

William Birch (1755-1834) was born in Warwickshire, England, Birch spent his early childhood apprenticing as a jeweler after showing little interest in formal education. Ultimately becoming a skilled engraver who was inspired by the work of Joshua Reynolds, he displayed his enamel miniatures at the Royal Academy in 1781 to wide acclaim, receiving a medal from the Society of Arts in 1785. In 1791 several of his engravings were published in a book titled Délices de la Grande Bretagne. 

Birch arrived on the wharf in Philadelphia, with an intimate knowledge the actual appearance of country estates in England as well as the manner in which they had been depicted in British art during the last half of the 18th-century.  He was sure he knew what proper, educated taste was in both architecture & landscape design & wanted to share that insight with a hopefully hungry & appreciative American audience, eager to buy his books.  Country estates in the new republic would not compare with country estates in the motherland, but he would depict them from a viewpoint of looking up at them.  They would sit as small crowns in a natural American landscape owing most of its design to Nature rather than the landscape architect's hand.

In his introduction, Birch wrote, "The comforts and advantages of a Country Residence, after Domestic accomodations are consulted, consist more in the beauty of the situation, than in the massy magnitude of the edifice: the choice ornaments of Architecture are by no means intended to be disparaged, they are on the contrary, not simply desirable, but requisite.  The man of taste will select his situation with skill, and add elegance and animation to the best choice.  In the United States the face of nature is so variegated; Nature has been so sportive and the means so easy of acquiring positions fit to gratify the most refined and rural enjoyment, that labour and expenditure of Art is not so great as in Countries less favoured."  Oh dear, perhaps a little condescending & awkward, and a disappointed Birch found that his 2nd American book did not sell well in the new republic.

Birch’s interest in landscapes, coupled with the success of his publication, brought him commissions to design landscapes for wealthy patrons. He planned several gardens in Delaware and Maryland, of which perhaps the only surviving design is that of the Hampton estate (now the Hampton National Historic Landmark) in Baltimore, Maryland. After Charles Carnan Ridgely inherited the plantation in 1790, he wished to alter the grounds and improve the design of the gardens. Birch, who was touring cities along the Atlantic coast at the time, was hired for this purpose. He made several plans for the improvement of the grounds and the formal gardens, although these were modified by successive owners. Many of Birch’s ideas regarding the estate are, however, evident in the engravings he made of it. Birch’s second publication, The Country Seats of the United States, was met with a tepid response when released in 1808. Following the War of 1812, he reverted to selling his enamel miniatures as a primary means of income. He died in Philadelphia at the age of 79.

William Russell Birch (English artist, 1755-1834) Hoboken in New Jersey Seat of Mr. John Stevens. Country Seats of the United States 1808

William Russell Birch (English artist, 1755-1834) Hampton the Seat of Gen. Charles Ridgley, Maryland.  Country Seats of the United States 1808

William Russell Birch (English artist, 1755-1834) Landsdown the Seat of the late Wm Bingham Esq Pennsylvania.  Country Seats of the United States 1808

William Russell Birch (English artist, 1755-1834) Mount Vernon, Virginia, Seat of the late Genl G. Washington.  Country Seats of the United States 1808.

William Russell Birch (English artist, 1755-1834) Fountain Green Pennsylvania the Seat of Mr. S. Meeker.  Country Seats of the United States 1808.

William Russell Birch (English artist, 1755-1834) Solitude in Pennsylvania belonging to Mr. Penn.  Country Seats of the United States 1808.

William Russell Birch (English artist, 1755-1834) Devon in Pennsylvania the Seat of Mr. Dallas.  Country Seats of the United States 1808.

William Russell Birch (English artist, 1755-1834) Mount Sidney, the Seat of Gen. John Barker.  Pennsylvania. Country Seats of the United States 1808

William Russell Birch (English artist, 1755-1834) Seat of Mr. Duplantier near New Orleans & lately occupied as Head Quarters by Gen. J. Wilkinson.  Country Seats of the United States 1808.

William Russell Birch (English artist, 1755-1834) Montebello Birch General S Smith Balt.  Country Seats of the United States 1808

William Russell Birch (English artist, 1755-1834) Woodlands.  Woodlands the Seat of Mr Wm Hamilton, Pennsylvania. Country Seats of the United States 1808

Plants in Early American Gardens - White Turtlehead

White Turtlehead (Chelone glabra)

This robust, showy North American perennial is found in moist woodland coves and along stream banks from Canada to Alabama. It was introduced into Europe in 1730 and named by Linnaeus. The Quaker botanist John Bartram sent seed of both white and red forms to his British patron, Peter Collinson, in 1750-51. The great naturalist, John Clayton, also sent seed abroad to Philip Miller of the Chelsea Physic Garden as well as to Bartram. By the mid-19th century, American garden writers such as Robert Buist promoted the Turtlehead as a desirable, but little known ornamental plant.

Plants in Early American Gardens - Queen's Tears

 Queen's Tears (Billbergia nutans)

Queen's Tears (Billbergia nutans)

This species is native to Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina where it grows both as an epiphyte in low trees and as a terrestrial on the forest floor from 2,300 to 3,000 feet elevation. The genus name honors the Swedish botanist, zoologist, and anatomist Gustaf Johan Billberg (1772-1844) who authored the Flora of Sweden. The specific epithet is Latin for nodding, in reference to the way the flowers are held in pendant clusters. The name Friendship Plant refers to the ability to easily propagate and share with friends.

Plants in Early American Gardens - Bare Root Dutchman's Breeches

Bare Root Dutchman's Breeches (Dicentra cucullaria)

This choice native perennial grows in abundance along the alluvial slopes of Monticello mountain, often in association with Virginia Bluebells. It was likely first brought into cultivation during the early nineteenth century. The plant grows from small bulbs and goes dormant quickly after flowering, often spreading seed to increase the colony in future seasons.