Garden Tools - Glass Bell Jars & Cloches

Bell glasses or cloches in this 1779 Pierre Philippe Choffard (Print made by); Jean Michel Moreau le jeune (After)  Emile ou de l'Education, volume III, page 98, of Rousseau's 'Oeuvres complètes' (Brussels Boubers, 1774).

About 1630, blown-glass cloches were first mentioned in gardening treatises. John Evelyn (1620-1706) included bell glasses in his Elysium Britannicum, or The Royal Gardens in Three Books. The classic garden cloche is a bell-shaped glass vessel with an open bottom.   A 2007 excavation in Northamptonshire, England, revealed bell domes providing evidence for the use of garden glassware during the latter stages of post-medieval Roman occupation.  In his 1732 Gardener's Dictionary, Philip Miller wrote of putting bell glasses over cauliflowers.  By this period in the British American colonies, Miller was deemed the authority on gardens & his books were plentiful along the Atlantic coast.  

In the December 23, 1737 Virginia Gazette, an item about a horse dying because it cut its knee by falling on a garden bell glass is the earliest mention I can find of the bell glass in the colonies. 

A 1970 archaeological dig in Williamsburg, Virginia, unearthed 2 knobs & one folded rim fragment from large gardem bell glasses made from the normal bottle glass metal. Fragments of at least 12 such garden glasses were found at one site & were believed to have come from the John Custis site. Custis was an avid gardener. Fragments of similar glasses have been excavated in Williamsburg at the Governor's Palace, Peter Hay's Shop, the Raleigh Tavern, the Wythe House, & John Carter's Store.  

Historical records indicate that bell-glasses were made in Pennsylvania as early as 1767, at Henry William Stiegel’s glasshouse in Manheim.  Called a “glasshouse” by Stiegel, the 1st glass was blown there in late 1764.  Stiegel hired skilled workmen from the European glassmaking centers, who would have been acquainted with making garden bell glasses. Newspaper advertising brought customers from New York, & Boston, as well as from nearby towns in Pennsylvania.

By 1775, the Philadelphia Glass Works of Kensington advertised bell glasses, along with other wares, in the Pennsylvania Packet.   

On April 16, 1796, bell glasses were for sale from the Albany Glass Factory according to the Herald newspaper in the city of New York. The glassworks was founded by Leonard de Neufville, who recruited experienced glass workers from Germany.
Using an incubating cloche in the early spring or late fall garden is an ideal way to protect infant seedlings. When unpredictable spring weather offers up a cold snap or chance of frost, the vigilant cloche acts as a miniature greenhouse.
Cloches hold in heat & moisture and offer shelter during bursts of strong spring winds.  Using a cloche, when delicate plants are their most vulnerable, is a totally organic way to protect them from deer, birds, slugs, & other pests, which abound up here in our woods.
One problem with the glass bell is that on particularly sunny days, that covered young plants might scorch in the hot sun.
Beningborough Hall, North Yorkshire, England

During high humidity, the gardener should also be on the lookout for mildew. When it’s particularly hot or moist, the gardener can temporarily remove the cloche or prop it up with a stick or small rock to let a bit of heat out & to allow the air to circulate.
In spring, delicate young seedlings can be planted out weeks earlier than would otherwise be feasible under the protection of a prudent cloche. Using a cloche will also extend the season for crops in the autumn by up to 3 weeks.
Beningbrough Hall & Gardens, Beningbrough, York, North Yorkshire, England

The curved shape allows the surface of the cloche to always be perpendicular to the direction of the sun thereby achieving minimum refraction & maximum penetration of light. A very simple but efficient tool.
Colonial Williamsburg in Virginia

The obvious limitation of a bell cloche is its capacity. A cloche is usually capable of covering only a single plant or a tiny collection of small seedlings. For gardening on a larger scale the cloche becomes somewhat impractical, but it always remains beautiful.

A number of garden bell glasses or cloches appear in this print for of the London & Greenwich Railway, 1835.

Tho Jefferson (1743-1824) Notes Gardening in Abundant America

 

Thomas Jefferson by Tadeusz Andrzej Bonawentura Kosciuszko (1746 - 1817) 

1788 June 19.  (Jefferson's Hints to Americans Travelling in Europe).  "Gardens. Peculiarly worth the attention of an American, because it is the country of all others where the noblest gardens may be made without expence. We have only to cut out the superabundant plants."

Research & images & much more are directly available from the Monticello.org website. 

Botany - 1791 Tho Jefferson (1743-1824) "Botanizing Excursion" with James Madison

Thomas Jefferson by Tadeusz Andrzej Bonawentura Kosciuszko (1746 - 1817) 

"The year was 1791, Jefferson, then Secretary of State under George Washington, was embroiled in various political & personal matters. His ideological vision for America, in conflict with the governmental system espoused by Alexander Hamilton, was causing political relationships to crumble & his already strained friendship with John Adams to deteriorate further. Consequently, Jefferson’s month-long “botanizing excursion” through New England with James Madison in June was the subject of much speculation that summer. 

"Hamilton & other political adversaries were convinced that this lengthy vacation of two Republican Virginians through Federalist strongholds in the North had secret, ulterior motives. It would seem likely that, as Jefferson historian Merrill Peterson surmised, while the 2 future presidents “bounced along in leisurely fashion, their conversation must have turned occasionally to politics.” Yet, apparently the trip was innocent of intrigue & intended exclusively for, in Madison’s words, “health recreation & curiosity.” This goal was successfully achieved, for both Jefferson’s “periodical” migraines & Madison’s “bilious attacks” vanished in the nearly 4 weeks they spent walking over historic battlefields, studying botanical curiosities, wildlife & insects (including “musketoes” & the Hessian fly), recording observations on climate, the seasons & the appearance of birds, & even boating & fishing in Lake George & Lake Champlain. 

"Their journey did, nevertheless, incorporate elements of a working vacation, for Jefferson was seeking ways to advance the new nation through alternative domestic industries. He believed his most recent idea—the addition “to the products of the U. S. of three such articles as oil, sugar, & upland rice”—would lessen America’s reliance on foreign trade, improve the lot of farmers, & ultimately result in the abolition of slavery itself. At that time a Quaker activist & philanthropist Dr. Benjamin Rush of Philadelphia, himself an ardent opponent of slavery, was seeking ways to convince political leaders & slave owners to create a sugar maple industry in America, convinced it would “lessen or destroy the consumption of West Indian sugar, & thus indirectly to destroy negro slavery.” Jefferson took up the cause of Benjamin Rush, becoming a conscientious consumer of maple sugar... In a letter to a friend in England, Jefferson expressed the political & humanitarian benefits of commercial independence when he wrote, “What a blessing to substitute a sugar which requires only the labour of children, for that which it is said renders the slavery of the blacks necessary.” 

What drew this unlikely vacation getaway pair together?  Jefferson & Madison were both born into well-established Virginia families, attended prestigious schools, & earned high marks. They shared an interest in industry & government, & each eventually became President Of The United States. They were energetic & ambitious.  Both Madison & Jefferson were generally respected by their contemporaries in 1791. They both owned slaves, yet each spoke against the concept of slavery.  Madison was realistic & pragmatic. Jefferson was imaginative & creative, he even proposed that the constitution be changed every 19 years.  Madison generally did not give his slaves grueling or tedious tasks, reflecting his practical management approach. Jefferson, on the other hand, micro-managed his slaves to do very specific things such as clean his horse so well there was not a spot of dirt on it.  Jefferson was very serious, while Madison would often tell jokes. And both seemed to find discovering botanical "curiosities" a relaxing project.

Excerpt from this 2004 Twinleaf article by Peggy Cornett, Thomas Jefferson Center for Historic Plants

Research & images & much more are directly available from the Monticello website - to begin exploring, just click the highlighted acknowledgment above. 

Old Garden Tools

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Garden tools fascinate me. They are the gritty, process end of gardening. Historians like this process stuff. We can look at early gardening tools in at drawings of tools by John Evelyn (1620–1706) in his Elysium Britannicum, or The Royal Gardens in Three Books. Here are a few more recent, but not modern by any means, garden tools.
Royal Horticultural Society Harlow Carr Botanical Gardens Harrogate, North Yorkshire, England
Lost Gardens of Heligan, South West, Cornwall, England

The Tool Gate at the Atlanta Botanical Gardens, Georgia



Royal Horticultural Society Harlow Carr Botanical Gardens Harrogate, North Yorkshire, England
Brighton Flea Market, Brighton, England
Calke Abbey, Ticknall, Derby, Derbyshire, England

The Tool Shed in the Melon Yard at the Lost Gardens of Heligan, South West, Cornwall, England
Royal Horticultural Society Harlow Carr Botanical Gardens Harrogate, North Yorkshire, England

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, England


Yorkshire National Forest, England

Garden to Table - Home-Made Honey & Hops Meads & Wine

 

John Greenwood (American artist, 1727-1792) Sea Captains Carousing, 1758.  Detail

Old-Time Recipes for Home Made Wines Cordials & Liqueurs 1909 by Helen S. Wright

MEAD - HOPS
The following is a good recipe for mead: On five pounds of honey pour five quarts of boiling water; boil, and remove the scum as it rises; add one-quarter ounce of the best hops, and boil for ten minutes. Then pour the liquor into a tub to cool; when all but cold add a little yeast spread upon a slice of toasted bread. Let it stand in a warm room. When fermentation is finished, bung it down, leaving a peg-hole which can afterwards be closed, and in less than a year it will be fit to bottle.

SMALL WHITE MEAD
Take three gallons of spring water, make it hot, and dissolve in it three quarts of honey, and one pound of loaf sugar. Let it boil about one-half hour, and skim it as long as any scum rises. Then pour it out into a tub, and squeeze in the juice of four lemons, put in the rinds but of two. Twenty cloves, two races of ginger, one top of sweet briar, and one top of rosemary. Let it stand in a tub till it is but blood-warm; then make a brown toast, and spread it with two or three spoonfuls of ale yeast. Put it into a vessel fit for it, let it stand four or five days, then bottle it out.

STRONG MEAD
Take of spring water what quantity you please, make it more than blood-warm, and dissolve honey in it until it is strong enough to bear an egg, the breadth of a shilling; then boil it gently, near an hour, taking off the scum as it rises. Then put to nine or ten gallons seven or eight large blades of mace, three nutmegs quartered, twenty cloves, three or four sticks of cinnamon, two or three roots of ginger, and one-quarter ounce of Jamaica pepper; put these spices into the kettle to the honey and water, a whole lemon, with a sprig of sweet briar, and a sprig of rosemary. Tie the briar and rosemary together, and when they have boiled a little while, take them out and throw them away; but let your liquor stand on the spice in a clear earthen pot till the next day. Then strain it into a vessel that is fit for it, put the spice in a bag, hang it in the vessel, stop it, and at three months draw it into bottles. Be sure that it is fine when it is bottled. After it is bottled six weeks it is fit to drink.

MEAD, METHEGLIN, OR HONEY WINE
Boil honey in water for an hour; the proportion is from three to four pounds to each gallon. Half an ounce of hops will both refine and preserve it, but is not commonly added. Skim carefully, draining the skimmings through a hair sieve, and return what runs through. When of a proper coolness, stir in yeast; one teacupful of solid yeast will serve for nine gallons. Tun it, and let it work over, filling it up till the fermentation subsides. Paste over brown paper and watch it. Rich mead will keep seven years, and afford a brisk, nourishing, and pleasant drink. Some people like to add the thinly shaved rind of a lemon to each gallon while boiling, and put the fruit, free from pith, into the tub. Others flavor it with spices and sweet herbs, and mix it with new beer or sweet wort; it is then called Welsh Braggart.

Old-Time Recipes for Home Made Wines is a cookbook for those who want to make their own wines & liqueurs from available ingredients, including fruits, flowers, vegetables, & shrubs from local gardens, farms, & orchards. It includes ingredients & instructions for making & fermenting spirits, from wine & ale to sherry, brandy, cordials, & even beer. 

Colonial Era Cookbooks

1615, New Booke of Cookerie, John Murrell (London) 

1798, American Cookery, Amelia Simmons (Hartford, CT)

1803, Frugal Housewife, Susannah Carter (New York, NY)

1807, A New System of Domestic Cookery, Maria Eliza Rundell (Boston, MA)

1808, New England Cookery, Lucy Emerson (Montpelier, VT)

Helpful Secondary Sources

America's Founding Food: The Story of New England Cooking/Keith Stavely and Kathleen Fitzgerald Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press, 2004.

Colonial Kitchens, Their Furnishings, and Their Gardens/Frances Phipps Hawthorn; 1972

Early American Beverages/John Hull Brown   Rutland, Vt., C. E. Tuttle Co 1996 

Early American Herb Recipes/Alice Cooke Brown  ABC-CLIO  Westport, United States

Food in Colonial and Federal America/Sandra L. Oliver

Home Life in Colonial Days/Alice Morse Earle (Chapter VII: Meat and Drink) New York : Macmillan Co., ©1926.

A Revolution in Eating: How the Quest for Food Shaped America/James E. McWilliams New York : Columbia University Press, 2005.

Garden Design - Beehives

A beehive is a receptacle used as a home for bees. Most beehives are built by bees, but some are man-made. 
English woodcut 1658


Honey bees weren't native to North America, and were brought over by the English colonists in the early 17th century.

French Apiary 1560

Honey bees are four-winged insects which need to live together in communities composed of one queen, or perfect female; a small number of males or "drones;" and an indefinite number of undeveloped females or "neuters" (which are the workers). Bees produce wax and honey, pollinating plants as they do.
Dutch woodcut 1488

Honey bees fly from flower to flower collecting the plant's sugary nectar. While doing so, the insects' hairy bodies trap the dusty pollen from the flowers' anthers and then transport that substance to fertilize other flowers. Meanwhile, the bees internally process the watery nectar into dense honey, which they store in their hives as a communal food source in the winter.

Medieval Bestiary Bee Gallery

Worker or neuter bees–which live about five weeks in the summer–make wax from about the 10th day of their lives to the 16th. When workers are about 10 days old, they develop special wax-producing glands in their abdomens.

Virgil on Bees

The young bees then eat honey. The glands convert the sugar in the honey into wax, which seeps through small pores in the bee's body leaving tiny white flakes on its abdomen. Bees then chew the bits of wax, mold it, and add it to the construction of the honeycomb. Bees build the combs for the queen to lay her eggs into and to store honey to fed themselves through winter, when there are no flowers. Honeycombs consist of six-sided tubes, which begin as circles pressed side to side, an efficient form that uses less wax for the volume of honey held than other shapes like triangles or squares.

1772 Honey bees. Encyclopedie, of Dictionaire Raisonne Des Sciences of Denis Diderot.

In 1593, in 2 Henry VI, Shakespeare wrote, "Drones sucke not Eagles blood, but rob Bee-hiues."

Wicker bee hive. (Medieval Italian.)

One of the early English garden books, New Orchard and Garden, written by William Lawson in 1618, stated, "There remaineth one necessary thing...which in my Opinion makes as much for Ornament, as either flowers, or forme, or cleanness...which is Bees, well ordered."

To help his fellow gardeners achieve bees, well ordered, William Lawson wrote The Country Housewives Garden, Containing Rules for Hearbes and Seeds of Common Use...Together With the Husbandry of Bees in 1637. Interest in beekeeping grew, and Lawson's treastise was followed nearly a century later by Joseph Warder's The True Amazons, or the Monarchy of Bees, which was also published in London.

During the 18th and early 19th centuries, American gardeners and farmers harvested honey as an alternative to expensive imported sugar and harvested the beeswax from the hives for a number of commercial purposes.

Bees build their own hives in a dark enclosed, dry space like in a tree trunk or wall cavity or under the eves of a roof. For centuries, people have created artificial beehives to house bees, often in the garden, for the purpose of producing honey and wax while encouraging pollination of nearby precious plants. Many gardeners consider these hives as ornamentation in their gardens as well. Often a special section of the property was set aside to keep the bee hives. They were kept together in a bee-garden, a bee-yard, or a bee-fold.

Wenceslas Hollar - The bear and the honey

Gardeners of the period constructed several types of beehives. A beeskep, made of thick coils of grass or straw worked into the shape of a dome, was popular in 18th century England; but in America, boxhives made of wooden frames, often sitting on tall wooden legs, were more common in the 18th and 19th centuries. In its simplest form, there is a single entrance at the bottom of a beeskep with no internal structure, except what the bees build themselves. Bees attach their wax combs to the garden hive's roof and walls, just like they do in wild hives.

Frontispiece woodcut from John Day's PARLIAMENT OF BEES. 1641

In order to learn about the progress of their hives, beekeepers had only one option -- to inspect beeskeps from the bottom. It was nearly impossible to peek into the interior of occupied beeskeps for diseases and pests; and the removal of honey often meant the destruction of the entire hive. When it was time to harvest the honey, beekeepers drove the bees out of the skep, often to a waiting empty skep.

Honey from these hives was typically extracted by crushing the wax honeycomb to squeeze out the honey. This harvest method typically provided more beeswax but far less honey than modern methods. Many American households used beeswax to make candles in the 18th and 19th centuries. Most churches burned beeswax candles.

1772 Honey bees. Encyclopedie, of Dictionaire Raisonne Des Sciences of Denis Diderot.

The boxhives, more popular in America, were simple wooden shelters to house a swarm of bees. In 1797, in Annapolis, Maryland, silvermaker William Faris wrote, A (neighbor) "Made Me a pressent of Hive of Bees." Later he noted that he had "put the frame of the bee house together." After a few years, he declared, drove the Bees out of the Old Hive into a nother and took the honey, the Hive was Rotten and Ready to tumble to peaces."

Richard Parkison, an English visitor to the Chesapeake, reported at the end of the 18th century, "Honey-bees are kept in America with equal success as in England...I never saw a hive made of straw."

New Yorker John Nicholson wrote about housing bees early American beer in The Farmer's Assistant in 1820, "The method practised in this Country is, to have rows of beehives set close together, in a building made for the purpose, which is called the bee-house. The apiary, spoken of by British Writers, seems to be quite different from this; as the hives are recommended to stand 6, some say 12, feet apart; and to be firmly fixed in a stake set into the ground. We have, however, never seen any particular advantage pointed out, by having the hives so far apart; while the expense of the apiary must, in this way, be much greater, as every hive must have its separate roof or covering. We shall therefore speak of the apiary, or beehouse, as we have it in this Country.

1772 Honey bees. Encyclopedie, of Dictionaire Raisonne Des Sciences of Denis Diderot.

"It should be at a suitable distance from any place where cattle are kept, or where Horses are tied; from hogsties, and every other place where filth is collected. It is well to place it in a remote part of the garden, and let some shrubery grow round it for the Bees to light on, if they are so disposed, when they swarm. No trees should be near it. Let it stand leaning forward a little, facing the south, and clear of shade, with the front part of the roof projecting over considerably, to prevent rains from weting the hives. These should be kept clean, dry, and sufficiently warm in Winter; but not so warm as to tempt the Bees abroad in warm Winter-days."

It was also difficult to get honey from these wooden boxhives without damaging or destroying the colony and sending the bees into frenzied stinging. Honey bee stings release pheromones that prompt other nearby bees to attack.

1772 Honey bees. Encyclopedie, of Dictionaire Raisonne Des Sciences of Denis Diderot.

Angry honey bees inserted themselves into several battles in 18th & 19th century America. In North Carolina, Governor William Tryon wrote in 1771, "The Army marched and crossed Abbets Creek, & encamped on Captain Merril's plantation. A Valuabe tract of Land and well cultivated...This Night a false alarm was given by an uncommon Incident. The Horses of the Army, upwards of one Hundred, were at pasture with Bells Round their Necks, in a field near to the Line of Encampment; and in an adjoining Garden were several Bee Hives some Soldiers taking a Fancy for Honey overturned the Hives about Midnight the Bees being thus disturbed & enraged dispersed themselves among the Horses in the Pasture stinging them to such a degree that they broke in one confused Squadron over the fence, and Came on full Gallop & in full Chorus of Bells, up to the Camp. The out Centinels uninformed on the real Cause joined in the Signal of Alarm; and the Cry through the Camp was 'Stand to your Arms' Stand to your Arms."

A book on the Civil War battle at Antietam, Maryland, Unfurl Those Colors quotes Private John D. Hemmingen of the 130th PA: “In our line of advance a number of beehives were over turned, and the little fellows resented the intrusion, and did most unceremoniously charge upon us, accelerating our speed through the orchard toward the entrenched position of the enemy."

Fixed-comb beeskeps and boxhives remained popular in the United States until the 1850's, and yielded about 10-15 pounds of honey per colony a year, as compared to over 100 pounds in modern, manmade beehives.

1772 Honey bees. Encyclopedie, of Dictionaire Raisonne Des Sciences of Denis Diderot.

The beeswax collected from beehives may have been even more important than the honey for the local economy. Peter Force's "Tracts on Virginia" reported in 1650, that honey was sold at 2 shillings a gallon and beeswax at 4 shillings for 100 pounds.

In 1771, Pennsylvania exported 29,261 pounds of beeswax; and by 1773, the total had climbed to 64,546 pounds exported by Philadelphia merchants. That figure only represented the amount shipped to other locations, and not the untold pounds cast into beeswax candles by local professional chandlers, housewives, servants, and slaves.

The Pennsylvania Gazette contained ads that solicited beeswax as a barter exchange for merchandise.

In 1791, the shop of George Meade on Philadelphia's Walnut Street Wharf announced that it had hogsheads of Madeira Wine, Irish Linens, and Pork of prime quality that could be purchased with payments of, among other things, quantities of raw beeswax. And Philadelphia druggist George Hunter noted that his shop offered medicines, paints, brushes and dye stuffs that could be purchased by cash, Jersey State or Pennsylvania, or "bees wax."

Beeswax was used to treat cloth to make it water-resistant, including waxed clothes for shrouds, bedticking, and marine supplies. Beeswax was also used in printer's ink, polishes, sealing wax, cosmetics, ointments, grafting wax, and for decorative ornaments of wax fruits, flowers, and portraits.

1772 Honey bees. Encyclopedie, of Dictionaire Raisonne Des Sciences of Denis Diderot.

In North Carolina, the first record of beekeeping appeared in Albemarle County records in 1697. Court records across the colony show sales & export of beeswax and honey throughout the 18th century. In 1768, Royal Governor William Tryon (1729-1788) allowed the payment of quit rents in beeswax as well as money & other goods.

Elegant beehive

The honey bee was so important in the colonial economy that in 1776, the new state of New Jersey printed its image on its currency. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the beehive became an icon in Freemasonry as a symbol of industry and cooperation.

1772 Honey bees. Encyclopedie, of Dictionaire Raisonne Des Sciences of Denis Diderot.

The beeskep is one of the symbols of the state of Utah; because it was associated with the honey bee, an early symbol of Mormon pioneer industry and resourcefulness.